



-| •.-:: ; 



h 

U-i 

ii ■ 




Class -^-i? ^ 

GoEyilglltlN™ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



A SCHOOL 



HISTORY OF GERMAIN^Y : 



FROM 



THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE ESTABLISHMEN'T OF 
THE GERMA:tT EMPIRE IN 1871. 



WITIT ONE HUNDRED AND TWELVE ILLUSTRATIONS AND SIX HISTORICAL MAPS. 



BY 

BAYARD TAYLOR 



0/ 



ap: y 



NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON" AISTD COMPAITY, 

549 AND 551 BEOADWAT. 
1874, 



9^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1ST4, by 

I). APPLETON & COMPANY, 

In the Ofllce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



.0 



'X 



v^ 



INTEODUCTOEY WORDS. 



The History of Germany is not the History of a Nation, 
but of a Race. It has little unity, therefore: it is complicated, 
broken, and attached on all sides to the histories of other 
countries. In its earlier periods it covers the greater part of 
Europe, and does not return exclusively to Germany until 
after France, Spain, England and the Italian States have been 
founded. Thus, even before the fall of the Roman Empire, it 
becomes the main trunk out of which branch the histories of 
nearly all European nations, and must of necessity be studied 
as the oonnecting link between Ancient and Modern History. 
The records of no other race throw so much light upon the 
development of all civilized lands, during a period of fifteen 
hundred years. 

The need of a work of this kind being evident, I have 
endeavored to supply it in such, a manner as to simplify the 
task of both teachers and pupils. My aim has been to present 
a clear, continuous narrative, omitting no episode of impor- 
tance, yet preserving a distinct line of connection from century 
to century. Besides referring to all the best authorities, I 
have based my labors mainly upon three recent German works, 
— that of Dittmar, as the fullest; of Von Rochau, as the most 
impartial, and of Dr. David Mtiller, as the most readable. 
By constructing an entirely new narrative from these, com- 
pressing the material into less than half the space which each 
occupies, and avoiding the interruptions and changes by which 
all are characterized , I hope to have made this History con- 
venient and acceptable to our schools. 

The historical maps will be found to be an important aid. 
The constant use of maps in the study of History is now so 



VI IXDRODUCTOKY WOEDS. 

generally applied that it does not need to be recommended; 
but I may suggest to the teacher the advantage of having the 
pupil occasionally compare the ancient and modern political 
boundaries. The questions attached to each page are meant 
to guide the attention of the pupil to the prominent facts of 
the narrative. The teacher, of course, will change or add to 
these according to his own judgment. The value of a History 
of this kind depends quite as much upon how it is used, as 
upon its intrinsic character. 

I have had some difficulty in deciding Avhat rule to adopt 
in regard to the spelling of German proper names. It seemed 
best to retain the original form, wherever not too unusual or 
difficult of pronunciation; yet I have been forced to make ex- 
ceptions in the case of well-known characters or places, such 
as "Charlemagne," "Cologne," and the like, which are too 
firmly settled to be changed. Some brief directions are ap- 
pended, to enable the pupil to pronounce most of the German 
names with tolerable correctness. 

In conclusion, I may remark that, while endeavoring to 
write very simply and intelligibly, I have purposely avoided a 
cJiildish style of narrative. There has been a tendency, of 
late, to bring certain kinds of School Histories down to the 
level of minds which are hardly developed enough to study 
History at all: consequently, where it is followed, many events 
must be omitted or only imperfectly explained. I consider 
that some effort, besides that of memory, is quite necessary to 
the pupils; and I am sure that none of them who have the 
true spirit will object to be treated as if a little older, instead 
of younger. May all such, in the United States, be able to 
discover for themselves, and to retain through life, the im- 
portant political lessons which every American may draw from 
the History of Germany! 

August 12th, 1873. 

B. T. 



THE PRONUNCIATION OP GERMAN. 



A very few directions will enable those who are not ac- 
quainted with the German language to pronounce most names 
and words with sufficient correctness. 

a is the English a, in father: before two consonants it is 
shorter. 

e is the English a, in fare: also shorter before two con- 
sonants. 

^, y^ like the English e, in scaie. 

11^ like the English oo, in boon. 

^{?, like the English ie^ in field. 

ci^ aiy like the English i, in fme. 

mij like the English ow^ in hrow. 

eitj du, like the English o^, in noise. 

a, almost like the English a, in fare. 

0, the French eu^ nearly like the English u in thrt^sh. 

a, the French u^ the sound of which must be learned 
by ear. 

c7?, a stronger aspirate than Ji: exactly the Scottish c7i, in 
the word locJi. 

h is silent, except at the beginning of a word. 

th is the English t. 

V is the English/. 

w is the English v. 

z is the English tz, 

sch^ the English sh. 

The other letters, or combinations of letters, not given 
here, are pronounced either just as in English, or so nearly 
the same that a more particular direction is unnecessary. 



Vlll THE PRONUNCIATION OF GEEMAN. 

The following specimens will show how the above rules 
are to be applied: Ludwig, pronounced asLoodoiff', Theuderich, 
as Toiderich', Hohenstaufen, as Ho-en-stowfen\ HohenzoUern, 
as HO'Cnt-zollern\ Holstein, as HolC'Stlne\ Weimar as Vy-mar] 
Wallenstein, as Vallenstine] Fehrbellin, as Fare-belUn; Naum- 
burg, as Noivml)Oorg\ Lothar, as Lotar, and Eyiau as Eye-low. 
Since a large proportion of the names of persons and places 
has already received a conventional, settled form of pronuncia- 
tion in English, the teacher need make but a limited appli- 
cation of the directions here given. 



CONTENTS 



PJLGB 

INTRODUCTORY WORDS HI 

THE PRONUNCIATION OF GERMAN V 

CHAPTER I. — THE AKCIENT GERMANS AND THEIR COUNTRY. 

(330 B. c— 70 B. c.) 1 

CHAPTER II. — THE WARS OF ROME WITH THE GERMANS. (70 

B. C— 9 A. D.) 12 

CHAPTER III. HERMANN, THE FIRST GERMAN LEADER. (9 

21 A. D.) 22 

CHAPTER IV. GERMANY DURING THE FIRST THREE CENTURIES 

OF OUR ERA. (21 300 A. D.) 35 

CHAPTER V. — THE RISE AND MIGRATIONS OF THE GOTHS. 

(300—412.) 46 

CHAPTER VI. — THE INVASION OF THE HUNS, AND ITS CONSE- 
QUENCES. (412—472.) 58 

CHAPTER VII. — THE RISE AND FALL OF THE OSTROGOTHS. (472 

—570.) 69 

CHAPTER VIII. — EUROPE, at the end of the migration of 

THE RACES. (570.) 78 

CHAPTER IX,— the kingdom of the franks. (486—638.) 87 
CHAPTER X. — the dynasty of the royal stew^vrds. 

(638—768.) 97 

CHAPTER XL— the reign of charlkmagne. (768—814.). ^2 
CHAPTER XIL — the emperors of the carolingian line. 

(814—911.) 127 

CHAPTER XIII. — king konrad, and the saxon rulers, 

HENRY I. AND OTTO THE GREAT. (912 — 973.) 143 

CHAPTER XIV. THE DECLINE OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 

(973—1024.) 163 

CHAPTER XV. — THE frank emperors, to the death of 

HENRY IV. (1024—1106.) 173 

CHAPTER XVI. — end of the frank dynasty, and rise of 

THE hohenstaufens. (1106 — 1152.) 195 

CHAPTER XVII. — THE reigh of Frederick i., barbarossa. 

(1152—1197.) 207 

CHAPTER XVIII. — the reign of Frederick ii. and end of 

THE HOHENSTAUFEN LINE. (1215 — 1268-) ....... 223 

CHAPTER XIX. — GERMANY AT THE TIME OF THE INTER- 
REGNUM. C1256— 1273.) 242 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

CHAPTER XX. — FROM rudolf of hapsburg to ludwig the 

BAVARIAN. (1273—1347.) 255 

CHAPTER XXL — the Luxemburg emperors, karl iv. and 

WENZEL. (1347—1410.) 274 

CHAPTER XXII. — THE reign of sigismund and the iius- 

siTE war. (1410—1437.) .288 

CHAPTER XXIIL— the foundation of the hapsburg dy- 
nasty. (1438—1493.) 304 

CHAPTER XXIV. — Germany during the reign of Maxi- 
milian I. (1493—1519.) 318 

CHAPTER XXV.— the reformation. (1517— 154G.) ... 329 

CHAPTER XXVI. — from luther's death to tub end of 

THE 16th century. (1546—1600.) 353 

CHAPTER XXVII. — beginning of the thirty years' war. 

(1600—1625.) 367 

CHAPTER XXVIII. — tilly, wallenstein and gustavus 

adolpiius. (1625— -1634.^ 381 

CHAPTER XXIX.— END of the thirty years' war. (1634 

—1648.) 399 

CHAPTER XXX. — Germany to the peace of ryswick. 

(1648—1697.) 412 

CHAPTER XXXI. — the war of the Spanish succession. 

(1697—1714.) 426 

CHAPTER XXXII.— THE rise of Prussia. (1714—1740.). 435 

CHAPTER XXXIII. — the reign of Frederick the great. 

(1740—1786.) 448 

CHAPTER XXXIV. —GERMANY , under MARIA THERESA AMD 

JOSEPH II. (1730—1790.) 478 

CHAPTER XXXV. — from the death of joseph ii. to the 

END OF the GERMAN EMPIRE. (1790 1806.) 489 

CHAPTER XXXVL — GERMANY under NAPOLEON. (1806— 

1814.) 508 

CHAPTER XXXVII. — from the liberation of Germany to 

THE YEAR 1848. (1814—1848.) 536 

CHAPTER XXXVIII.— THE revolution of 1848 and its 

results. (1848—1861.) 552 

CHAPTER XXXIX. — the struggle with Austria; the 

NORTH-GERMAN UNION. (18.61 — 1870.) 564 

CHAPTER XL. — the war with trance, and establishment 

OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. (1870 1871.) 573 



A SCHOOL 



HISTORY OF GERMAI^Y, 



CHAPTER I. 

THE ANCIENT GERMANS AND THEIR COUNTRY 
(330 B. C— 70 B. C.) 

The Aryan Race and its Migrations.— Earliest Inhabitants of Europe. — Lake 
Dwellings. — Celtic and Germanic Migrations. — Europe in the Fourth 
Century, b. c— The Name " German". — Voyage of Pytheas. — Invasions of 
the Cimbrians and Teutons, b. c. 113. — Victories of Marius. — Boundary 
between the Gauls and the Germans. — Geographical Location of the 
various Germanic Tribes. — Their Mode of Life, Vices, Virtues, Laws and 
Religion. 

The Germans form one of the most important branches 
of the Indo-Germanic or Aryan race — a division of the human 
family wliich also includes the Hindoos, Persians, Greeks, Ro- 
mans, Celts, and the Slavonic tribes. The near relationship 
of all these, wliich have become so separated in their habits of 
life, forms of government and religious faith, in the course of 
many centuries, has been established by the evidence of common 
tradition, language and physiological structure. The original 

Of what race are the Germans a branch? "What other peoples are included 
in this race? How is their relationship established? 



Z FIEST INHABITANTS OF EUEOPE. 

home of the Aryan race appears to have been somewhere among 
the mountains and lofty table -lands of Central Asia. The 
word "Arya," meaning the higli^ or the excellent^ indicates their 
superiority over the neighboring races, long before the begin- 
ning of history. 

When, and under what circumstances the Aryans left their 
home, can never be ascertained. Most scholars suppose that 
there were diiferent migrations, and that each movement 
westward was accomplished slowly, centuries intervening be- 
tween their departure from Central Asia, and their permanent 
settlement in Europe. The earliest migration was probably 
that of the tribes who took possession of Greece and Italy; who 
first acquired, and for more than a thousand years maintained, 
their ascendancy over all other branches of their common 
family; who, in fact, laid the basis for the civilization of the 
world. 

Before this migration took place, Europe was inhabited by 
a race of primitive savages , who were not greatly superior to 
the wild beasts in the vast forests which then covered the con- 
tinent. They were exterminated at so early a period that all 
traditions of their existence were lost. Within the last twenty 
or thirty years, however, various relics of this race have been 
brought to light. Fragments of skulls and skeletons, with 
knives and arrow-heads of flint, have been found, at a con- 
siderable depth , in the gravel-beds of Northern France , or in 
caves in Germany, together with the bones of animals now 
extinct , upon which they fed. In the lakes of Switzerland, 
they built dwellings upon piles, at a little distance from the 
shore, in order to be more secure against the attacks of wild 
beasts or hostile tribes. Many remains of these lake-dwell- 
ings, with flint implements and fragments of pottery, have re- 
cently been discovered. The skulls of the race indicate that 
they were savages of the lowest type, and different in character 
from any which now exist on the earth. 

The second migration of the Aryan race is supposed to 
have been that of the Celtic tribes, who took a more northerly 

Where did the Aryans come from? What is the meaning of the name? 
Which was the first migration from Asia? By whom was Europe then 
peopled? What remains of them have been found, and where? What 
dwellings did they build, and where? What do their skulls indicate? 



AEYAN MIGEATIONS. 6 

course, by way of the steppes of the Volga and the Don, and 
gradually obtained possession of all Central and Western 
Europe, including the British Isles. Their advance was only 
stopped by the ocean, and the tribe which first appears in 
history, the Gauls , was at that time beginning to move east- 
ward again, in search of new fields of plunder. It is impossible 
to ascertain whether the German tribes immediately followed 
the Celts, and took possession of the territory which they 
vacated in pushing westward, or whether they formed a third 
migration, at a later date. We only know the order in which 
they were settled when our first historical knowledge of them 
begins. 

In the fourth century before the Christian Era, all Europe 
west of the Rhine, and as far south as the Po, was Celtic: 
between the Rhine and the Vistula, including Denmark and 
southern Sweden, the tribes were Germanic; while the Slavonic 
branch seems to have already made its appearance in what is 
now Southern Russia. Each of these three branches of the 
* Aryan race was divided into many smaller tribes, some of 
which, left behind in the march from Asia, or separated by 
internal wars, formed little communities, like islands, in the 
midst of territory belonging to other branches of the race. 
The boundaries, also, were never very distinctly drawn: the 
tribes were restless and nomadic, not yet attached to the soil, 
and many of them moved through or across each other, so that 
some were constantly disappearing, and others forming under 
new names. 

The Romans first heard the name, "Germans," from the 
Celtic Gauls, in whose language it meant simply, neiglihors. 
The first notice of a Germanic tribe was given to the world by 
the Greek navigator, Pytheas, who made a voyage to the Baltic 
in the year 330 b. c. Beyond the amber-coast, eastward of 
the mouth of the Vistula, he found the Goths, of whom we hear 
nothing more until they appear, several centuries later, on the 



"What is supposed to be the second Aryan migration? Where did the 
Celts settle? What is the first tribe mentioned in history? Describe the 
location of the Celtic tribes in the fourth century, b. c. Of the Germanic 
tribes? Tlie Slavonic? How were these branches divided? When was the 
name, ^'Germans," first heard, and what is its meaning? Who gave the first 
account of a Germanic tribe, and when? 



4 CIMBEIANS AND TEUTONS. [ll3 B. C. 

northern shore of the Black Sea. For more than two hundred 
years there is no further mention of the Germanic races; then, 
most unexpectedly, the Romans were called upon to make their 
personal acquaintance. 

In the year 113 b. c. a tremendous horde of strangers 
forced its way through the Tyrolese Alps and invaded the 
Roman territory. They numbered several hundred thousand, 
and brought with them their wives, children and all their 
movable property. They were composed of two great tribes, 
the Cimbrians and Teutons, accompanied by some minor allies, 
Celtic as well as Germanic. Their statement was that they 
were driven from their homes on the northern ocean by the 
inroads of the waves, and they demanded territory for settle- 
ment, or, at least, the right to pass the Roman frontier. The 
Consul, Papirius Carbo, collected an army and endeavored to 
resist their advance; but he was defeated by them in a battle 
fought near Noreia, between the Adriatic and the Alps. 

The terror occasioned by this defeat reached even Rome. 
The "barbarians," as they were called , were men of large sta- * 
ture, of astonishing bodily strength, with yellow hair and fierce 
blue eyes. They wore breastplates of iron and helmets crowned 
with the heads of wild beasts, and carried white shields which 
shone in the sunshine. They first hurled double-headed spears, 
in battle, but at close quarters fought with short and heavy 
swords. The women encouraged them with cries and war- 
songs, and seemed no less fierce and courageous than the men. 
They had also priestesses, clad in white linen, who delivered 
prophecies and slaughtered human victims upon the altars of 
their gods. 

Instead of moving towards Rome, the Cimbrians and Teu- 
tons marched westward along the foot of the Alps, crossed 
into Gaul, devastated the country between the Rhone and the 
Pyrenees, and even obtained temporary possession of part of 
Spain. Having thus plundered at will for ten years, they re- 

What was tlie tribe, and where settled? How long until the Germans 
are again mentioned? When was the first German invasion of Roman terri- 
tory? Describe its character. What were the tribes? What statement did 
they make, and what demtud? What happened afterwards? How were these 
people called by the Romans? What was their appearance? How were they 
armed? What was their manner of fighting? What part did the women 
take? In what direction did they march? 



102 B. C] ' VICTOKIES OF MABIUS. 5 

traced their steps and prepared to invade Italy a second time. 
The celebrated Consul, Marius, who was sent against them, 
found their forces divided, in order to cross the Alps by two 
different roads. He first attacked the Teutons, two hundred 
thousand in number at Aix, in southern France, and almost 
exterminated them in the year 102 B. c. Transferring his 
army across the Alps , in the following year he met the Cim- 
brians at Vercelli, in Piedmont (not far from the field of Ma- 
genta). They were drawn up in a square, the sides of which 
were nearly three miles long : in the centre their wagons , col- 
lected tosrether, formed a fortress for the women and children. 
But the Roman legions broke the Cimbrian square, and ob- 
tained a complete victory. The women, seeing that all was 
lost, slew their children, and then themselves; but a few 
thousand prisoners were made — among them Teutoboch , the 
prince of the Teutons, who had escaped from the slaughter 
at Aix , — to figure in the triumph accorded to Marius by the 
Roman Senate. This was the only appearance of the* German 
tribes in Italy, until the decline of the Empire, five hundred 
years later. 

The Roman conquests, which now began to extend north- 
wards into the heart of Europe, soon brought the two races 
into collision again, but upon German or Celtic soil. From 
the earliest reports, as well as the later movements of the 
tribes, we are able to ascertain the probable order of their 
settlement, though not the exact boundaries of each. The 
territory which they occupied was almost the same as that 
which now belongs to the German States. The Rhine divided 
them from the Gauls, except towards its mouth, where the 
Germanic tribes occupied part of Belgium. A line drawn from 
the Vistula southward to the Danube nearly represents their 
eastern boundary, while, up to this time, they do not appear 
to have crossed the Danube on the south. The district between 
that river and the Alps, now Bavaria and Styria, was occupied 
by Celtic tribes. Northwards, they had made some advance 



Who was sent against them? Whom did he first attack, when, and where? 
Describe the second battle and its result. How long until the Germane 
again appeared in Italy? What was the territory occupied by the Germanic 
tribes? What was its eastern boundary? Who lived south of the Danube? 



g THE GERMAN TRIBES. » 

into Sweden, and probably also into Norway. They thus occu- 
pied nearly all of Central Europe, north of the Alpine chain. 

At the time of their first contact with the Romans, these 
Germanic tribes had lost even the tradition of their Asiatic 
origin. They supposed themselves to have originated upon the 
soif where they dwelt, sprung either from the earth, or des- 
cended from their gods. According to the most popular legend, 
the war-god Tuisko, or Tiu, had a son, Mannus (whence the 
word man is derived), who was the first human parent of the 
German race. Many centuries must have elapsed since their 
first settlement in Europe, or they could not have so com- 
pletely changed the forms of their religion and their traditional 

history. 

Two or three small tribes are represented, m the earhest 
Eoman accounts, as having crossed the Rhine and settled 
between the Yosges and that river, from Strasburg to Mayence. 
From the latter point to Cologne none are mentioned, whence it 
is conjectured that the western bank of the Rhine was here a 
debateable ground possessed sometimes by the Celts and some- 
times by the Germans. The greater part of Belgium was 
occupied by the Eburones and Condrusii, Germanic tribes, to 
whom was afterwards added the Aduatuci, formed out of the 
frao-ments of the Cimbrians and Teutons who escaped the 
slaughters of Marius. At the mouth of the Rhine dwelt the 
Bat^vi, the forefathers of the Dutch, and, like them, re- 
ported to be strong, phlegmatic and stubborn, in^the time 
of Csesar. A little eastward, on the shore of the North Sea, 
dwelt the Frisii, where they still dwell, in the province of 
Friesland; and beyond them, about the mouth of the \Yeser, 
the Chauci, a kindred tribe. ^ ^ 

What is now Westphalia was inhabited by the Sicambrians, 
a brave and warlike people: the Marsi and Ampsivarii were 
beyond them, towards the Hartz, and south of the latter the 
Ubii, once a powerful tribe, but in Caesar's time weak and 



How far north were the Germans settled? What tradition had they lost ? 
What did they suppose to be their origin? Who was their first l^^^^^^n pa- 
rent, and what was his nan,e? Describe the settlements on the -astern bank 
of the Rhine. Who were settled in Belgium? Who at the mouth of the 
Bhine ? Who along the shore of the Korth Sea? 



THE GERMAN TRIBES. 7 

submissive. From the Weser to the Elbe, in the north, was 
the bind of the Cherusci; south of them the equally fierce and 
indomitable Chatti, the ancestors of the modern Hessians ; and 
still further south, along the head- waters of the river Main, 
the Marcomanni. A part of what is now Saxony was in the 
possession of the Hermunduri, who together with their kindred, 
the Chatti, were called Stievi by the Romans. Northward, 
towards the mouth of the Elbe , dwelt the Longobardi (Lom- 
bards); beyond them, in Holstein, the Saxons, and north of the 
latter, in Schleswig, the Angles. 

East of the Elbe were the Semnones , who were guardians 
of a certain holy place, — a grove of the Druids — where various 
related tribes came for their religious festivals. Korth of the 
Semnones dwelt the Yandals, and along the Baltic coast the 
Kugii, who have left their name in the island of Riigen. Be- 
tween these and the Vistula were the Burgundiones, with a few 
smaller tribes. In the extreme north-east, between the Vistula 
and the point where the city of Konigsberg now stands , was 
the home of the Goths , south of whom were settled the Sla- 
vonic Sarmatians, — the same who founded, long afterwards, the 
kingdom of Poland. 

Bohemia was first settled by the Celtic tribe of the Boii, 
whence its name — Boiheim^ the home of the Boii, — is derived. 
In Caesar's day, however, this tribe had been driven out 
by the Germanic Marcomanni, whose neighbors, the Quadi, on 
the Danube, were also German. Beyond the Danube, all was 
Celtic; the defeated Boii occupied Austria, the Vindelici, Ba- 
varia, while the Noric and Rhsetian Celts took possession of 
the Tyrolese Alps. Switzerland was inhabited by the Helvetii, 
a Celtic tribe which had been driven out of Germany ; but the 
mountainous district between the Rhine, the Lake of Constance 
and the Danube, now called the Black Forest, seems to have 
had no permanent owners. 

What tribe inhabited Westphalia and who were beyond them? Where 
were the Cherusci, and who were their neighbors ? Where were the Marco- 
manni ? Who inhabited Saxony, and what were they called by the Romans ? 
AVhere did the Longobardi live? the Saxons? the Angles? Where were 
the Semnones, and what were they? Where the Vandals? Where the Goths ? 
the Sarmatians? Who settled Bohemia, and whence its name? Who in- 
habited Austria? Bavaria? The Tyrolese Alps? Who inhabited Switzerland? 
the Black Forest? 



8 HABITS OF THE GEEMANS. 

The gi'eater part of Germany was thus in possession of 
Germanic tribes, bound to each other by blood, by their com- 
mon religion and their habits of life. At this early period, 
their virtues and their vices were strongly marked. They 
were not barbarians, for they knew the first necessary arts of 
civilized life, and they had a fixed social and political organi- 
zation. The greater part of the territory which they inhabited 
was still a wilderness. The mountain chain which extends 
through Central Germany from the Main to the Elbe was 
called by the Romans the Hercynian Forest. It was then a 
wild, savage region, the home of the aurox (a race of wild 
cattle), the bear and the elk. The lower lands to the north- 
ward of this forest were also thickly wooded and marshy, with 
open pastures here and there, where the tribes settled in small 
communities , kept their cattle , and cultivated the soil only 
enough to supply the needs of life. They made rough roads 
of communication , which could be traversed by their wagons, 
and the frontiers of each tribe were usually marked by guard- 
houses, where all strangers were detained until they received 
permission to enter the territory. 

At this early period, the Germans had no cities, or even 
villages. Their places of worship, which were either groves of 
venerable oak-trees or the tops of mountains , were often for- 
tified; and when attacked in the open country, they made a 
temporary defence of their wagons. They lived in log-houses, 
which were surrounded by stockades spacious enough to 
contain the cattle and horses belonging to the family. A few 
fields of rye and barley furnished each homestead with bread 
and beer, but hunting and fishing were their chief dependence. 
The women cultivated flax, from which they made a coarse, 
strong linen: the men clothed themselves with furs or leather. 
They were acquainted with the smelting and working of iron, 
but valued gold and silver only for the sake of ornament. They 



"What was the condition of the Germans at this time? What was the terri- 
tory ? What was the Hercynian Forest ? What animals were found there ? 
How did the people live in the lowlands ? What communications had they? How 
were their frontiers guarded? Had they cities? What were their places of 
worship, and defence? What was their manner of living? How did they 
dress? 



^ THEIR VICES. 9 

were fond of bright colors, of poetry and song, and were in 
the highest degree hospitable. 

The three principal vices of the Germans were indolence, 
drunkenness and love of gaming. Although always ready for 
the toils and dangers of war, they disliked to work at home. 
When the men assembled at night, and the great ox-horns, 
filled with mead or beer, were passed from one to the other, 
they rarely ceased until all were intoxicated; and when the 
passion for gaming came upon them, they would often stake 




DWELLINGS OF EAELY GERMANS, 



their dearest possessions, even their own freedom on a throw 
of the dice. The women were never present on these occasions ; 
they ruled and regulated their households with undisputed 
sway. They were considered the equals of the men, and ex- 
hibited no less energy and courage. They were supposed to 
possess the gift of prophecy, and always accompanied the men 
to battle, where they took care of the wounded, and stimulated 
the warriors by their shouts and songs. 



What did they know of metals? What other traits of character had they? 
What were their vices? Describe their manner of drinking and gaming, 
llow were the women regarded? What did they do? 



10 THEIE GOYEKNMENT. 

They honored the institution of marriage to an extent 
beyond that exhibited by any other people of the ancient 
world. The ceremony consisted in the man giving a horse, or 
a yoke of oxen, to the woman , who gave him arms or armor 
in return. Those who proved unfaithful to the marriage vow 
were punished with death. The children of freemen and slaves 
grew up together, until the former were old enough to carry 
arms, when they were separated. The slaves were divided into 
two classes: those who lived under the protection of a freeman 
and were obliged to perform for him a certain amount of labor, 
and those who were wholly "chattels," bought and sold at 
will. 

Each family had its own strictly regulated laws, which 
were sufficient for the government of its free members, its re- 
tainers and slaves. A number of these families formed "a 
district," which was generally laid out according to natural 
boundaries, such as streams or hills. In some tribes, however, 
the families were united in "hundreds," instead of districts. 
Each of these managed its own affairs, as a little republic, 
wherein each freeman had an equal voice ; yet to each belonged 
a leader, who was called "count" or "duke". All the districts 
of a tribe met together in a "General Assembly of the People," 
which was always held at the time of new or full moon. The 
chief priest of the tribe presided , and each man present had 
the right to vote. Here. questions of peace or war, violations 
of right or disputes between the districts were decided, crimi- 
nals were tried, young men acknowledged as freemen and 
warriors, and, in case of approaching war, a leader chosen by the 
people. Alliances between the tribes , for the sake of mutual 
defence or invasion, were not common, at first; but the ne- 
cessity of them was soon forced upon the Germans by the 
encroachments of Rome. 

The gods which they worshipped represented the powers 
of Nature. Their mythology was the same originally, which 



How was marriage considered among them? What was the ceremony? 
How were the children brought up? Describe the two classes of slaves. 
How were the districts formed? What other form of community had they? 
Wliat was the character of government? What was the General Assembly? 
When was it held? Who presided? What matters were settled there ? Had 
the tribes alliances? What did their gods represent? 



THEIB RELIGION. 11 

the Scandinavians preserved, in a slightly different form, until 
the tenth century of our era. The chief deity was named 
Wodan, or Odin, the god of the sky, whose worship was really 
that of the sun. His son, Donar, or Thunder, with his fiery 
beard and huge hammer, is the Thor of the Scandinavians. 
The god of war. Tin or Tyr, was supposed to have been born 
from the Earth, and thus became the ancestor of the Germanic 
tribes. There was also a goddess of the earth, Hertha, who 
was worshipped with secret and mysterious rites. The people 
had their religious festivals, at stated seasons, when sacrifices, 
sometimes of human beings , were laid upon the altars of the 
gods, in the sacred groves. Even after they became Christians, 
in the eighth century, they retained their habit of celebrating 
some of these festivals , but changed them into the Christian 
anniversaries of Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide. 

Thus, from all we can learn respecting them , we may say 
that the Germans, during the first century before Christ, were 
fully prepared, by their habits, laws, and their moral develop- 
ment, for a higher civilization. They were still restless, after 
so many centuries of wandering; they were fierce and fond of 
war, as a natural consequence of their struggles with the 
neighboring races; but they had already acquired a love for 
the wild land where they dwelt , they had begun to cultivate 
the soil, they had purified and hallowed the family relation, 
which is the basis of all good government, and finally, although 
slavery existed among them, they had established equal rights 
for free men. 

If the object of Rome had been civilization, instead of con- 
quest and plunder, the development of the Germans might 
have commenced much earlier and produced very different 
results. 



What mythology resembles theirg? Who was the chief deity? Who was 
his son? Who was the god of war? What goddess had they? How did they 
worship? How were their festivals changed, and when? What can wo say 
of the Germans, at this time? Describe their chief traits of character. 



12 CiESAR IN GAUL. [to B, C. 

CHAPTER 11. 

THE WAKS OF EOME WITH THE GERMANS. (70 T>. C. 9 A. D.) 

Homan Conquest of Gaul. — The German Chief, Ariovistus. — His Answer to 
Caesar. — Caesar's March to the Rhine. — Defeat of Ariovistus. —Czesar's 
Victory near Cologne. — His Bridge.— His Second Expedition,— He sub- 
jugates the Gauls. — Ho enlists a German Legion. — The Romans advance 
to the Danube, under Augustus. — First Expedition of Drusus.— Tlie Rhine 
fortified. — Death of Drusus. — Conquests of Tiberius.— The War of the 
Marcomanni. — The Cherusci. — Tyranny of Varus.— Resistance of the Ger- 
mans. 

After the destruction of the Teutons and Cimbriansby Ma- 
I'ius, more than forty years elapsed before the Romans again came 
in contact with any German tribe. During this time the Ro- 
man dominion over the greater part of Gaul was firmly estab- 
lished by Julius Caesar, and in losing their independence, the 
Celts began to lose, also , their original habits and character. 
They and the Germans had never been very peaceable neigh- 
bors, and the possession of the western bank of the Rhine 
seems to have been, even at that early day, a subject of conten- 
tion between them. 

About the year 70 b. c. two Gallic tribes , the ^dui in 
Burgundy and the Arverni in Central France began a struggle 
for the supremacy in that part of Gaul. The allies of the 
latter, the Sequani, called to their assistance a chief of the 
German Suevi, whose name, as we have it through Caesar, was 
Ariovistus. With a force of 15,000 men, he joined the Ar- 
verni and the Sequani, and defeated the .^dui in several 
battles. After the complete overthrow of the latter , he 
haughtily demanded as a recompense , one-third of the terri- 
tory of the Sequani. His strength had meanwhile been in- 
creased by new accessions from the German side of the Rhine, 
and the Sequani were obliged to yield. His followers settled 
in the new territory : in the course of about fourteen years, 



How long before the Romans and Germans again mot? What conquest 
did the Romans make? How did it affect* the Celts? What subject of con- 
tention was there between the Celts and Germans? What Gallic tribes ouar- 
relled, when and why? Who were allied with the Sequani? What happened 
afterwards? 




GERMANY UNDER THE C^SAES. 



14 C^SAR AND ARIOVISTUS. [57 B. C. 

they amounted to 120,000, and Ariovistus felt himself 
strong enough to demand another third of the lands of the 
Sequani. 

Southern France was then a Roman province, governed 
by Julius Caesar. In the year 57 b. c. ambassadors from the 
principal tribes of Eastern Gaul appeared before him and 
implored his assistance against the inroads of the Suevi. It 
was an opportunity which he immediately seized , in order to 
bring the remaining Gallic tribes under the sway of Rome. He 
first sent a summons to Ariovistus to appear before him, but 
the haughty German chief answered: "When I need Caesar, I 
shall come to Caesar. If Caesar needs me , let him seek me. 
What business has he in my Gaul , which I have acquired in 
war?" 

On receiving this answer, Caesar marched immediately with 
his legions into the land of the Sequani, and succeeded in 
reaching their capital , Yesontio (the modern Besangon), before 
the enemy. It was then a fortified place, and its possession 
gave Caesar an important advantage, at the start. While his 
legions were resting there for a few days, before beginning 
the march against the Suevi, the Gallic and Roman merchants 
and traders circulated the most frightful accounts of the 
strength and fierceness of the latter through the Roman camp. 
They reported that the German barbarians were men of giant 
size and more than human strength, whose faces were so terrible 
that the glances of their eyes could not be endured. Very 
soon numbers of the Roman officers demanded leave of ab- 
sence, and even the few who were ashamed to take this step 
lost all courage. The soldiers became so demoralized that 
many of them declared openly that they would refuse to fight, 
if commanded to do so. 

In this emergency, Caesar showed his genius as a leader of 
men. He called a large number of soldiers and officers of all 
grades together, and addressed them in strong words, pointing 
out their superior military discipline, ridiculing the terrible 



What new demand did Ariovistus make? Whose assistance was asked, 
and when? What was the answer of Ariovistus to Caesar? What was Caesar's 
first movement? What happened at Vesontio ? What reports were circulated? 
What effect had they on the officers? on the soldiers? 



57 B. C] 



C^SAR AND HIS ARMY. 



15 



stories iti circulation, and sharply censuring tliem for their in- 
subordination. He concluded by declaring that if the army 
should refuse to march, he would start the next morning with 
only the tenth legion, upon the courage and obedience of which 
he could rely. This speech produced an immediate effect. 




BOMAN 80IiDI£RS, IK THX TIME OF C^SAB. 

The tenth legion solemnly thanked Caesar for his confidence in 
its men and officers, the other legions, one after the other, 
declared their readiness to follow, and the whole army left 
Vesontio the very next morning. After a rapid march of seven 
days, Caesar found himself within a short distance of the forti- 
fied camp of Ariovistus. 

The German chief now agreed to an interview, and the two 
leaders met, half-way between the two armies, on the plain of 



What did Csesar do and say? What was the effect of his speech? 
2 



16 DEFEAT OF AEIOVl'STUS. [57 B. €• 

the Rhine. The place is supposed to have been a little to the 
northward of Basel. Neither Csesar nor Ariovistus would yield 
to the demands of the other, and as the cavalry of their armies 
began skirmishing, the interview was bi'oken off. For several 
days in succession the Romans offered battle, but the Suevi 
refused to leave their strong position. This hesitation seemed 
remarkable, until it was explained by some prisoners, captured 
in a skirmish, who stated that the German priestesses had 
prophesied misfortune to Ariovistus , if he should fight before 
the new moon. 

Csesar, thereupon, determined to attack the German camp 
without delay. The meeting of the two armies was fierce, and 
the soldiers were soon fighting, hand to hand. On each side 
one wing gave way, but the greater quickness and superior 
military skill of the Romans enabled them to recover sooner 
than the enemy. The day ended with the entire defeat of the 
Suevi, and the flight of the few who escaped across the Rhine. 
They did not attempt to reconquer their lost territory, and the 
three small German tribes, who had long been settled between 
the Rhine and the Vosges (in what is now Alsatia), became 
subject to Roman rule. 

Two years afterwards, Caesar, who was engaged in sub- 
jugating the Belgse, in Northern Gaul, learned that two other 
German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteres, who had been 
driven from their homes by the Suevi, had crossed the Rhine 
below where Cologne now stands. They numbered 400,000, 
and the Northern Gauls, instead of regarding them as invaders, 
were inclined to welcome them as allies against Rome, the 
common enemy. Csesar knew that if they remained , a revolt 
of the Gauls against his rule would be the consequence. He 
therefore hastened to meet them, got possession of their prin- 
cipal chiefs by treachery , and then attacked their camp be- 
tween the Meuse and the Rhine. The Germans were defeated, 
and nearly all their foot-soldiers slaughtered , but the cavalry 



V^hat happened next? Where is the place supposed to have been? How 
did the Suevi act? What was the explanation of their tactics? What course 
did Csesar take? Describe the battle which followed. What was its consequence? 
What tribes crossed the Ehine, two years afterwards, and where? What 
were their numbers? How were they received? What was Ccesar's action? 



b3 B. C.J C^SAR INVADES GEEMANY. 17 

succeeded in crossing the river, where they were welcomed 
by the Sicambrians. 

Then it was that Caesar built his famous wooden bridge 
across the Rhine, not far from the site of Cologne, although 
the precise point cannot now be ascertained. He crossed with 
his army into Westphalia, but the tribes he sought retreated 
into the great forests to, the eastward where he was unable to 
pursue them. He contented himself with burning their houses 
and gathering their ripened harvests for eighteen days, when 
he returned to the other side and destroyed the bridge behind 
him. From this time, Rome claimed the sovereignty of the 
western bank of the Rhine, to its mouth. 

While Caesar was in Britain, in the year 53 b. c. the 
newly subjugated Celtic and German tribes which inhabited 
Belgium rose in open revolt against the Roman rule. The 
rapidity of Caesar's return arrested their temporary success, 
but some of the German tribes to the eastward of the Rhine 
had already promised to aid them. In order to secure his 
conquests, the Roman general determined to cross the Rhine 
again, and intimidate, if not subdue, his dangerous neighbors. 
He built a second bridge, near the place where the first had been, 
and crossed with his army. But, as before, the Suevi and Si- 
cambrians drew back amonor the forest-covered hills alone: the 
Weser river, and only the small and peaceful tribe of the Ubii 
remained in their homes. The latter offered their submission 
to Caesar, and agreed to furnish him with news of the move- 
ments of their warlike countrymen, in return for his protection. 

When another revolt of the Celtic Gauls took place, the 
following year, German mercenaries, enlisted among the Ubii, 
fought on the Roman side and took an important part in the 
decisive battle which gave Vercingetorix, the last chief of the 
Gauls, into Caesar's hands. He was beheaded, and from that 
time the Gauls made no further effort to tiirow off the Roman 
yoke. They accepted the civil and military organization, the 
dress and habits, and finally the language and religion of their 



What was the result of the battle ? What did Caesar next do ? Vihat did he 
accomplish in Westphalia? What claim did Rome make? What tribes next 
revolted, and when? How did Caesar meet them? What tribes retreated and 
what remained? What agreement did the Ubii make? What happen^ed the 
following year? 



18 END OF CJESAr's CAMPAIGNS. [l5 B. C 

conquerors. The small German tribes in Alsatia and Belgium 
shared the same fate : their territory was divided into two 
provinces, called Upper and Lower Germania by the Eomans. 
The vast region inhabited by the independent tribes, lying be- 
tween the Rhine, the Vistula, the North Sea and the Danube, 
was thenceforth named Gerinama 3Iagna, or "Great Germany." 

Csesar's renown among the Germans, and probably also 
his skill in dealing with them, was so great, that when he left 
Gaul to return to Rome, he took with him a German legion of 
6,000 men, which afterwards fought on his side against Pom- 
pey, on the battle-field of Pharsalia. The Roman agents pene- " 
trated into the interior of the country, and enlisted a great 
many of the free Germans who were tempted by the prospect 
of good pay and booty. Even the younger sons of the chiefs 
entered the Roman army, for the sake of a better military 
education. 

No movement of any consequence took place for more than 
twenty years after Csesar's last departure from the banks of 
the Rhine. The Romans, having secured their possession of 
Gaul, now turned their attention to the subjugation of the 
Celtic tribes inhabiting the Alps and the lowlands south of 
the Danube, from the Lake of Constance to Vienna. This 
work had also been begun by Caesar: it was continued by 
the Emperor Augustus, whose step-sons, Tiberius and Drusus, 
finally overcame the desperate resistance of the native tribes. 
In the year 15 b. c. the Danube became the boundary between 
Rome and Germany on the south, as the Rhine already was 
on the west. The Roman provinces of Rhaetia, Noricum and 
Pannonia were formed out of the conquered territory. 

Augustus now sent Drusus, with a large army, to the 
Rhine , instructing him to undertake a campaign against the 
independent German tribes. It does not appear that the latter 
had given any recent occasion for this hostile movement : the 



How were the Gauls afifected by their conquest? What German tribes 
were conquered? What became of their territory? What was *' Germania 
Magna"?, Whom did Csesar take with him to Rome, and wliat service did 
they render? What did the Eoman agents do? Why did the Germans enlist? 
How long before another movement? In what were the Romans engaged? 
Who began this work? Who finished it? What river became the boundary? 
When? What provinces were formed? 



11 B. C] THE EXPEDITIONS OF DRUSUS. 19 

Emperor's design was probably to extent the dominions of 
Rome to the North Sea and the Baltic. Drusus built a large 
fleet on the Rhine , descended that river nearly to its mouth, 
cut a canal for his vessels to a lake which is now the Zuyder 
Zee, and thus entered the North Sea. It was a bold under- 
taking, but did not succeed. He reached the mouth of the 
river Ems with his fleet, when the weather became so tem- 
pestuous that he was obliged to return. 

The next year, 11 b. c. he made an expedition into the 
land of the Sicambrians , during w4nch his situation was often 
hazardous; but he succeeded in penetrating rather more than 
a hundred miles to the eastward of the Rhine, and establishing 
— not far from where the city of Paderborn now stands — a 
fortress called Aliso, which became a base for later operations 
against the German tribes. He next set about building a 
series of fortresses, fifty in number, along the western bank of 
the Rhine, Around the most important of these, towns im- 
mediately sprang up, and thus were laid the foundations of 
the cities of Strasburg, Mayence, Coblenz, Cologne, and many 
smaller places. 

In the year 9 b, c. Drusus marched again into Germany. 
He defeated the Chatti in several bloody battles, crossed the 
passes of the Thiiringian Forest, and forced his way through 
the land of the Cherusci (the Hartz region) to the Elbe. The 
legend says that he there encountered a German prophetess, 
who threatened him with coming evil , w^hereupon he turned 
about and retraced his way towards the Rhine. He died, how- 
ever, during the march, and his dejected army had great diffi- 
culty in reaching the safe line of their fortresses. 

Tiberius succeeded to the command left vacant by the death 
of his brother, Drusus. Less daring, but of a more cautious 
and scheming nature, he began by taking possession of the 
land of the Sicambrians and colonizing a part of the tribe on 
the west bank of the Rhine. He then gradually extended his 



What did Augustus next do? AVhat was his probable design? What was 
the undertaking of Drusus? State its result. When did he march against the 
Sicambrians? What did he accomplish? What was his next step? What 
cities were thus founded? When did Drusus next march? What were the 
results of his expedition? What legend is related of him? What was his fate? 
Who succeeded him? What did he first do? 



20 TIBEKIUS IN GERMANY. [5 A. D. 

power, and in the course of two years brought nearly the 
whole country between the Rhine and Weser under the rule 
of Rome. His successor, Domitius -^nobarbus , built military 
roads through Westphalia and the low marshy plains towards 
the sea. These roads, which were called "long bridges," were 
probably made of logs, like the "corduroy" roads of our 
Western States, but they were of great service during the 
later Roman campaigns. 

After the lapse often years, however, the subjugated tribes 
between the Rhine and the Weser rose in revolt. The struggle 
lasted for three years more, without being decided; and then 
Augustus sent Tiberius a second time to Germany. The latter 
was as successful as at first: he crushed some of the rebellious 
tribes, accepted the submission of others, and, supported by a 
fleet which reached the Elbe and ascended that river to meet 
him, secured, as he supposed, the sway of Rome over nearly 
the whole of Germania Magna, This was in the fifth year of 
the Christian Era. Of the German tribes who still remained 
independent, there were the Semnones, Saxons and Angles, 
east of the Elbe, and the Burgundians, Yandals and Goths, 
along the shore of the Baltic, together with one powerful tribe 
in Bohemia. The latter, the Marcomanni, who seem to have 
left their original home in Baden and Wiirtemberg on account 
of the approach of the Romans, now felt that their independence 
was a second time seriously threatened. Their first measure 
of defence, therefore, was to strengthen themselves by alliances 
with kindred tribes. 

The chief of the Marcomanni, named Marbod, was a man 
of unusual capacity and energy. It seems that he was educated 
as a Roman, but under what circumstances is not stated. This 
rendered him a more dangerous enemy, though it also made 
him an object of suspicion, and perhaps jealousy, to the other 
German chieftains. Nevertheless he succeeded in uniting 
nearly all the independent tribes east of the Elbe under his 



How successful was he? Who followed Tiberius, and what did he build? 
What kind of roads were they? When was the next revolt? How long did 
it last? Who was sent from Rome? What did he accomplish? When was it? 
What tribes still remained independent? What did the Marcomanni fear? 
What was their first measure? Who was their chief? How was he re- 
gar led ? 



8 A. D.] THE MABCOMANNi: VARUS. 21 

command, and in organizing a standing army of 70,000 foot 
and 4,000 horse, which, disciplined like the Roman legions, 
might be considered a match for an equal number. His success 
created so much anxiety in Rome, that in the next year after 
Tiberius returned from his successes in Germany, Augustus 
determined to send a force of twelve legions against Marbod. 
Precisely at this time, a great insurrection broke out in Dal- 
raatia and Pannonia, and when it was suppressed, after a 
struggle of three years, the Romans found it prudent to offer 
peace to Marbod, and he to accept it. 

By this time, the territory between the Rhine and the \Ve- 
ser had been fifteen years, and that between the Weser and 
the Elbe four years, under Roman government. The tribes 
inhabiting the first of these two regions had been much 
weakened, both by the part some of them had taken in 
the Gallic insurrections, and by the revolt of all against Rome, 
during the first three or four years of the Christian Era. But 
those who inhabited the region between the Weser and the 
Elbe, the chief of whom were the Cherusci, were still powerful 
and unsubdued in spirit. 

While Augustus was occupied in putting down the in- 
surrection in Dalmatia and Pannonia, with a prospect, as it 
seemed, of having to fight the Marcomanni afterwards, his 
representative in Germany was Quinctilius Varus, a man of 
despotic and relentless character. Tiberius, in spite of his 
later vices as Emperor, was prudent and conciliatory in his 
conquests; but Varus soon turned the respect of the Germans 
for the Roman power into the fiercest hate. He applied, in a 
more brutal form, the same measures which had been forced 
upon the Gauls. He overturned, at one blow, all the native 
forms of law, introduced heavy taxes, which were collected by 
force, punished with shameful death crimes which the people 
considered trivial, and decided all matters in Roman courts 
and in a language which was not yet understood. 

This violent and reckless policy, which Varus enforced with 



What did be sncceed in doing? What was the effect of the movement? 
What induced the Romans to conclude a peace? What territory was under 
Koraan government, and how long? Which were the most powerful tribes? 
Who was the Roman governor at this time? What was the difference between 
him and Tiberius? What measures did he enforce? 



22 THE CHERUSCI. [9 A. D. 

a hand of iron, produced an effect the reverse of what he 
anticipated. The German tribes, with hardly an exception, 
determined to make another effort to regain their independence; 
but they had been taught wisdom by seventy years of conflict 
with the Roman power. Up to tliis time, each tribe had acted 
for itself, without concert with its neighbors. They saw, now, 
that no single tribe could cope successfully with Eome: it was 
necessary that all should be united as one people: and they 
only waited until such a union could be secretly established, 
before rising to throw off the unendurable yoke which Varus 
had laid upon them. 



CHAPTER III. 



HERMANN, THE FIRST GERMAN LEADER. 
(9 — 21 A. D.) 

The Cherusci.- Hermann's Early Life.— His Return to Germany.— Enmity of 
Segestes.— Secret Union of the Tribes.— The Revolt.— Destruction of Va- 
rus and his Legions. —Terror in Rome.— The Battle-Field and Monument. 
— Dissensions. — First March of Germanicus.— Second March and Battle 
with Hermann. — Defeat of Cacina. — Third Expedition of Germanicus. — 
Battles on the Weser. — His Retreat. — Views of Tiberius.— War between 
Hermann and Marbod.— Murder of Hermann. — His Character.— Tacitus. 

The Cherusci, who inhabited a part of the land between 
the Weser and the Elbe, including the Hartz Mountains, were 
the most powerful of the tribes conquered by Tiberius. They 
had no permanent class of nobles, as none of the early Germans 
seem to have had , but certain families were distinguished for 
their abilities and their character, or the services which they 
had rendered to their people in war. The head of one of these 
Cheruscian families was Semmar, one of whose sons was named 
Hermann. The latter entered the Roman service as a youth; 
distinguished himself by his military talent, was made a Ro- 
man knight, and commanded one of the legions which were 
employed by Augustus in suppressing the great insurrection 
of the Dalmatians and Pannonians. It seems probable that 
he visited Rome, at the period of its highest power and splen- 



What effect had his rule upon the Germans? What did they resolve to do? 
Describe tlio Cherusci. Who was Hermann? 



9 A. D.] 



HEEMANN. 



23 



dor: it is certain, at least, that lie eompreliended the political 
system by means of which the Empire had become so great. 




BOMB m THE TIME OF HEEMANN. 



When Hermann returned to his people, he was a man of 
twenty- five and already an experienced commander. He is 



Wliat is known of his early life? 



24 heemann's conspiracy. [9 a. d. 

described by the Latin writers as a chief of fine personal pre- 
sence, great strength, an animated countenance and bright eyes. 
He was always self-possessed , quick in action , yet never rash 
or heedless. He found the Cherusci and all the neiorhborincc 
tribes filled with hate of the Roman rule and burning to re- 
venge the injuries they had sufiered. His first movement was 
to organize a secret conspiracy among the tribes, which could 
be called into action as soon as a fortunate opportunity should 
arrive. Varus was then — A. D. 9 — encamped near the Weser, 
in the land of the Saxons, with an army of 40,000 men, the 
best of the Roman legions. Hermann was still in the Roman 
service, and held a command under him. But among the other 
Germans in the Roman camp was Segestes, a chief of the Che- 
rusci, whose daughter, Thusnelda, Hermann had stolen away 
from him and married. Thusnelda was afterwards celebrated 
in the German legends as a high-hearted, patriotic woman, 
who was devotedly attached to Hermann: but her father, Se- 
gestes, became his bitterest enemy. 

In engaging the difierent tribes to unite, Hermann had 
great difficulties to overcome. They were not only jealous of 
each other, remembering ancient quarrels between themselves, 
but many families in each tribe were disposed to submit to 
Rome, being either hopeless of succeeding or tempted by the 
chance of office and wealth under the Roman government. 
Hermann's own brother, Flavus, had become, and always re- 
mained, a Roman ; other members of his family were opposed 
to his undertaking, and it seems that only his mother and his 
wife encouraged him with their sympathy. Nevertheless, he 
formed his plans with as much skill as boldness, while serving 
in the army of Varus and liable to be betrayed at any moment. 
In fact he ivas betrayed by his step -father, Segestes, who 
became acquainted with the fact of a conspiracy and communi- 
cated the news to the Roman general. But Varus, haughty 
and self-confident, laughed at the story. 



How old was he at this time? What description is given of him? 
Wliat was his first movement? Who was the Roman commander, what force 
had lie and where? Who was Segestes? Why was he Hermann*s enemy? 
What was the state of feeling among the tribes? How was Hermann sup- 
ported by his own family? What did Segestes do? How did Varus receive 
tlie news? 



9 A. D.] EETEEAT OF YAEUS. 25 

It was time to act ; and, as no opportunity came, Hermann 
treated one. He caused messengers to come to A'arus, declaring 
that a dangerous insurrection had broken out in the lands be- 
tween him and the Rhine. This was in the month of Septem- 
ber, and Varus, believing the reports, broke up his camp and 
set out to suppress the insurrection before the winter. His 
nearest way Jed through the wooded, mountainous country 
along the Weser, which is now called the Teutoburger Forest. 
According to one account, Hermann was left behind to collect 
the auxiliary German troops, and then, with them, rejoin his 
general. It is certain that he remained, and instantly sent his 
messengers to all the tribes engaged in the conspiracy , whose 
warriors came to him with all speed. In a few days he had 
an army probably equal in numbers to that of Varus. In the 
meantime the season had changed: violent autumn storms 
burst over the land, and the Romans slowly advanced through 
the forests and mountain-passes, in the wind and rain. 

Hermann knew the ground and was able to choose the 
best point of attack. With his army, hastily organized, he 
burst upon the legions of Varus, who resisted him, the first 
day, with their accustomed valor. But the attack was renewed 
the second day, and the endurance of the Roman troops began 
to give way: they held their ground v/ith difficulty, but exerted 
themselves to the utmost, for there was now only one moun- 
tain ridge to be passed. Beyond it lay the broad plains of 
Westphalia, with fortresses and military roads, where they had 
better chances of defence. When the third day dawned , the 
storm was fiercer than ever. The Roman army crossed the 
summit of the last ridge and saw the securer plains before 
them. They commenced descending the long slope, but, just as 
they reached three steep, wooded ravines which were still to 
be traversed, the Germans swept down upon them from the 
summits, like a torrent, with shouts and far-sounding songs of 
battle. 

A complete panic seized the exhausted and disheartened 
Roman troops, and the fight soon became a slaughter. Varus, 



What scheme did Hermann adopt? What did Varus then do? What was 
nermann's next movement? In what season was it? Describe the first and 
second days of the fight. What happened on the third day? 



26 Hermann's victory. [9 a. d. 

wounded, threw himself upon his sword : the wooded passes, 
below, were occupied in advance by the Germans, and hardly 
enough escaped to carry the news of the terrible defeat to the 
Roman frontier on the Rhine. Those who escaped death were 
sacrificed upon the altars of the gods, and the fiercest revenge 
was visited upon the Roman judges, lawyers and civil officers, 
who had trampled upon all the hallowed laws and customs of 
the people. The news of this great German victory reached 
Rome in the midst of the rejoicings over the suppression of 
the insurrection in Dalmatia and Pannonia, and turned the 
triumph into mourning. The aged Augustus feared the over- 
throw of his power. He was unable to comprehend such a 
sudden and terrible disaster: he let his hair and beard grow 
for months, as a sign of his trouble, and was often heard to 
cry aloud: "0, Varus, Varus, give me back my legions!" 

The location of the battle-field where Hermann defeated 
Varus has been preserved by tradition. The long southern 
slope of the mountain, near Detmold, now bare, but surrounded 
by forests, is called to this day the WinfielcL Around the 
summit of the mountain there is a ring of huge stones, show- 
ing that it was originally consecrated to the worship of the 
ancient pagan deities. Here a pedestal of granite, in the form 
of a temple has been built, and upon it will be placed a colos- 
sal statue of Hermann in bronze, 90 feet high, and visible at 
a distance of fifty miles. 

Hermann's deeds were afterwards celebrated in the songs 
of his people, as they have been in modern German literature ; 
but, like many other great men, the best results of his victory 
were cast away by the people whom he had liberated. It was 
now possible to organize into a nation the tribes which had 
united to overthrow the Romans, and such seems to have been 
his intention. He sent the head of Varus to Marbod, Chief of 
the Marcomanni, whose power he had secured by carrying out 
his original design; but he failed to secure the friendship, or 
even the neutrality, of the rival leader. At home his own fa- 



"What was the end of Ihe battle? How were the Roman prisoners treated? 
"Wliat was the efifect of the news in Rome? How did Augustus receive it? 
Wliere is the battle-field? How is it called? Describe the monument upon 
it. How was Hermann's victory celebrated? What was his plan? What his 
course towards Marbod? 



28 THE INVASION OF GEEMANICUS. [l5 A. D. 

mily — bitterest among them all his father-in-law, Segestes, — 
opposed his plans , and the Cherusci were soon divided into 
two parties, — that of the people, headed by Hermann, and 
that of the nobility, headed by Segcstes. 

When Tiberius, therefore, hastily collected a new army 
and marched into Germany, the following year, he encountered 
no serious opposition. The union of the tribes had been dis- 
solved, and each avoided an encounter with the Romans. The 
country was apparently subjugated for the second time. The 
Emperor Augustus died, A. d. 14: Tiberius succeeded to the 
purple, and the command in Germany then devolved upon his 
ne23hew, Germanicus, the son of Drusus. 

The new commander, however, was detained in Gaul by 
insubordination in the army and signs of a revolt among the 
jDeople, following the death of Augustus, and he did not reach 
Germany until six years after the defeat of Varus. His march 
was sudden and swift, and took the people by surprise, for 
the apparent indifference of Rome had made them careless. 
The Marsi were all assembled at one of their religious festivals, 
unprepared for defence, in a consecrated pine forest, when 
Germanicus fell upon them and slaughtered the greater number, 
after which he destroyed the sacred trees. Th§ news of this 
outrage roused the sluggish spirit of all the neighboring tribes : 
they gathered together in such numbers that Germanicus had 
much difficulty in fighting his way back to the Rhine. 

Hermann succeeded in escaping from his father-in-law, 
by whom he had been captured and imprisoned, and began to 
form a new union of the tribes. His first design was to release 
his wife, Thusnelda, from the hands of Segestes, and then destroy 
the authority of the latter, who was the head of the faction 
friendly to Rome. Germanicus re-entered Germany the follow- 
ing summer, a. D. 15, with a powerful army, and to him 
Segestes appealed for help against his own countrymen. The 
Romans marched at once into the land of the Cherusci. After 
a few days they reached the scene of the defeat of Varus, and 



How did his family act? How was Tiberius received in Germany? Who 
succeeded to the command? When did he arrive? How did he treat the 
Marsi? What was the effect of tins act? What did Hermann do? What 
was his first design? When did Germanicus return? Who came to him? 



15 A. D.] 



THE INVASION OF GEKMANICUS. 



29 




THE SLAUGHTER OF THE MAR3I. 



there they halted to bury the thousands of skeletons which lay 
wasting on the mountain-side. Then they met Segestcs , who 



30 RETBEAT OP C^CINA. [l5 A. D. 

gave up bis own daughter, Thusnelda, to Gerraanicus, as a 
captive. 

The loss of his wife roused Hermann to fury. He went 
liither and thither among the tribes, stirring the hearts of all 
with bis fiery addresses. Germanicus soon perceived that a 
storm was gathering, and prepared to meet it. He divided his 
army into two parts, one of which was commanded by Caecina, 
and built a large fleet which transported one-half of his troops 
by sea and up the Weser. After joining Caecina, he marched 
into the Teutoburger Forest. Hermann met him near the 
scene of his great victory over Varus, and a fierce battle was 
fought. According to the Romans, neither side obtained any 
advantage over the other; but Germanicus, with half the army, 
fell back upon his fleet and returned to the Rhine by way of 
the North Sea. 

Gsecina, with the remnant of his four legions, also retreated 
across the country, pursued by Hermann. In the dark forests 
and on the marshy plains they were exposed to constant as- 
saults, and were obliged to fight every step of the way. Fin- 
ally, in a marshy valley, the site of which cannot be discovered, 
the Germans suddenly attacked the Romans on all sides. Her- 
mann cried out to his soldiers: "It shall be another day of 
Varus ! " the songs of the women prophesied triumph , and the 
Romans were filled with forebodings of defeat. They fought 
desperately, but were forced to yield, and Hermann's words 
would have been made truth, had not the Germans ceased 
fighting in order to plunder the camp of their enemies. The 
latter were thus able to cut their way out of the valley and 
hastily fortify themselves for the night on an adjoining plain. 

The German chiefs held a council of war, and decided, 
against the remonstrances of Hermann, to renew the attack at 
daybreak. This was precisely what Caecina expected ; he knew 
what fate awaited them all if he should fail, and arranged his 
weakened forces to meet the assault. They fought with such 
desperation that the Germans were defeated, and Csecina was 



What were the first incidents of his march ? "What was Hermann's course? 
What preparation did Germanicus make? Wliat was the result? What 
became of Caecina? Describe the battle which followed. What did the Ger- 
man chiefs decide ? 



16 A. D.] EETUEN OF GERMANICUS. 31 

enabled, by forced marches, to reach the Rhine, whither the 
rumor of the entire destruction of his army had preceded him. 
The voyage of Germanicus was also unfortunate: he encountered 
a violent storm on the coast of Holland, and two of his legions 
barely escaped destruction. He had nothing to show, as the 
result of his campaign , except his captive Thusnelda, and her 
son, who walked behind his triumphal chariot, in Rome, three 
years afterwards, and never again saw their native land; and 
his ally , the traitor Segestes, who ended his contemptible life 
somewhere in Gaul, under Roman protection. 

Germanicus, nevertheless, determined not to rest until he 
had completed the subjugation of the country as far as the 
Elbe. By employing all the means at his command he raised 
a new army of eight legions, with a great body of cavalry, 
and a number of auxiliary troops , formed of Gauls, Rhsetians, 
and even of Germans. He collected a fleet of more than a 
thousand vessels, and transported his army to the mouth of 
the Ems, where he landed and commenced the campaign. The 
Chauci, living near the sea, submitted at once, and some of 
the neighboring tribes were disposed to follow their example; 
but Hermann, with a large force of the united Germans, waited 
for the Romans among the mountains of the Weser. Ger- 
manicus entered the mountains by a gorge, near where the 
city of Minden now stands, and the two armies faced each other, 
separated only by the river. The legends state that Hermann 
and his brother Flavus, who was still in the service of Ger- 
manicus, held an angry conversation from the opposite shores, 
and the latter became so exasperated that he endeavored to 
cross on horseback and attack Hermann. 

Germanicus first sent his cavalry across the Weser, and 
then built a bridge, over which his whole army crossed. The 
Romans and Germans then met in battle, upon a narrow place 
between the river and some wooded hills, called the Meadow 
of the Elves. The fight was long and bloody: Hermann, him- 



How (lid Cseoina meet tliem? Wliat happened to Germanicus on his re- 
turn? What were liis trophies? What became of them? What did Ger- 
manicus next undertake? How did he transport his army? How did the 
Germans receive him? Where did he again meet Hermann? What happened? 
Where was the battle-field, what was it called? 



32 END OF THE INVASION. [l6 A. D. 

self, severely wounded, was at one time almost in the hands 
of the Romans. It is said that his face was so covered with 
Mood that he was only recognized by some of the German 
soldiers on the Roman side, who purposely allowed him to 
escape. The superior military skill of Germanicus, and the 
discipline of his troops, won the day: the Germans retreated, 
beaten but not yet subdued. 

In a short time the latter were so far recruited that they 
brought on a second battle. On account of his wounds, Hermann 
was unable to command in person, but his uncle, Ingiomar, 
who took his place, imitated his boldness and bravery. The 
fight was even more fierce than the first had been , and the 
Romans, at one time, were only prevented from giving way 
by Germanicus placing himself at their head, in the thick of 
the battle. It appears that both sides held their ground, at 
the close, and their losses were probably equally great, so that 
neither was in a condition to continue the struggle. 

Germanicus erected a monument on the banks of the Weser, 
claiming that he had conquered Germany to the Elbe; but 
before the end of the summer of the year 16 he re-embarked 
with his army, without leaving any tokens of Roman authority 
behind him. A terrible storm on the North Sea so scattered 
his fleet that many vessels were driven to the English coast: 
his own ship was in such danger that he landed among the 
Chauci and returned across the country to the Rhine. The 
autumn was far advanced before the scattered remnants of his 
great army could be collected and reorganized: then, in spite 
of the lateness of the season, he made a new invasion into the 
lands of the Chatti, or Hessians, in order to show that he was 
still powerful. 

Germanicus was a man of great ambition and of astonishing 
energy. As Julius Caesar had made Gaul Roman , so he deter- 
mined to make Germany Roman. He began his preparations 
for another expedition, the following summer ; but the Emperor 
Tiberius, jealous of his increasing renown, recalled him to 



Describe the battle. Who comnianded in the second battle? How did it 
result? What did Germanicus do afterwards? What happened on his return 
journey? What new invasion did he make, and why ? What did he determine 
to do? 



19 A. D.J WAK BETWEEN HEEMANN AND MARBOD. 33 

Rome, saying that it was better to let the German tribes ex- 
haust themselves in their own internal discords, than to waste 
so many of the best legions in subduing them. Germanicus 
obeyed, returned to Rome, had his grand triumph, and was 
then sent to the East, where he shortly afterwards died, it was 
supposed by poison. 

The words of the shrewd Emperor were true: two rival 
powers had been developed in Germany through the resistance 
to Rome, and they soon came into conflict. Marbod, chief of 
the Marcomanni and many allied tribes, had maintained his 
position without war; but Hermann, now the recognized head 
of the Cherusci and their confederates, who had destroyed 
Yarns and held Germanicus at bay, possessed a popularity, 
founded on his heroism, which spread far and wide through 
the German land. Even at that early day, the small chiefs in 
each tribe (corresponding to the later nobility) were opposed 
to the broad, patriotic union which Hermann had established, 
because it weakened their power and increased that of the 
people. They were also jealous *of his great authority and in- 
fluence, and even his uncle, Ingiomar, who had led so bravely 
the last battle against Germanicus , went over to the side of 
Marbod when it became evident that the rivalry of the two 
chiefs must lead to war. 

Our account of these events is obscure and imperfect. On 
the one side, it seems that Marbod's neutrality was a ground 
of complaint with Hermann; while Marbod declared that the 
latter had no right to draw the Semnones and Longobards — at 
first allied with the Marcomanni — into union with the Cherusci 
against Rome. In the year 1 9 the two marched against each 
other, and a great battle took place. Although neither was 
victorious , the popularity of Hermann drew so many of Mar- 
bod's allies to his side, that the latter fled to Italy and claimed 
the protection of Tiberius, who assigned to him Ravenna as a 
residence. He died there in the year 37, at a very advanced 



What did Tiberius do, and say? What was the end of Germanicus? Who 
were the two parties among the Germans ? What part did the small chiefs 
take, and why? What did Ingiomar do? What seems to have been the 
quarrel between Hermann and Marbod? When was the battle between them 
fought? What was its result? 



34 DEATH OF HERMANN. [t.n A. D. 

age. A Goth , named Catwalda , assisted by Roman influence, 
became his successor as chief of the Marcomanni. 

After the flight of Marbod, Hermann seems to have devoted 
himself to the creation of a permanent union of the tribes 
which he had commanded. We may guess, but cannot assert, 
that his object was to establish a national .organization , like 
that of Rome, and in doing this, he must have come into con- 
flict with laws and customs which were considered sacred by 
the people. But his remaining days were too few for even the 
beginning of a task which included such an advance in the 
civilization of the race. We only know that he was waylaid 
and assassinated by members of his own family, in the year 
21. He was then 37 years old and had been for 13 years a 
leader of his people. The best monument to his ability and 
heroism may be found in the words of a Roman, the historian 
Tacitus; who says: ''He was undoubtedly the liberator of Ger- 
many, having dared to grapple with the Roman power, not in 
its beginnings, like other kings and commanders, but in the 
maturity of its strength. He was not always victorious in 
battle, but in tear he was never subdued. He still lives in the 
songs of the Barbarians, unknown to the annals of the Greeks, 
who only admire that which belongs to themselves — nor ce- 
lebrated as he deserves by the Romans, who, in praising the 
olden times, neglect the events of the later years." 

(Cornelius Tacitus, the famous Roman historian, was born 
A. D. 54, and lived until after A. D. 117. His works, the 
principal *of which are the ''Histories," the "Annals," and the 
"Germania," were written during the reigns of the Emperors 
Nerva and Trajan, the last-named about the year 98. It is 
the oldest authentic account , not only of the Germanic tribes, 
but also of the country they inhabited.) 



"When did Marbod die? "Who succeeded liim? "What was probably Her- 
mann's course afterwards? "What do we know of his death? when was it? 
How old was he? How long liad he been a leader? What Roman liistorian 
mentions him? What does he say ? When did Tacitus live? What were his 
principal works, and when were they written? What is his "Germania"? 



50 A. D.] DIVISIONS AMONG THE GERMANS. 35 



CHAPTER IV. 

GERMANY DURING THE FIRST THREE CENTURIES OF OUR ERA. 

(21 — 300 A. D.) 

Truce between the Germans and Romans.— The Cherusci cease to exist.- In- 
cursions of the Chauci and Chatti.— Insurrection of the Gauls. — Conquests 
of Cerealis. — The Roman Boundary.— German Legions under Rome. — Tho 
Agri Decumates. — Influence of Roman Civilization. — Commerce.— Changes 
among the Germans.— War against Marcus Aurelius. — Decline of the Ro- 
man Power.— Union of the Germans in Separate Nationalities. — The Ale- 
manni. — The Franks. — The Saxons. — The Goths.— The Thuringians. — The 
Burguudians.— Wars with Rome in the third century.— The Emperor 
Probus and his Policy. — Constantine. — Relative Position of the two Races. 

After the campaigns of Germanicus and the death of Her- 
mann, a long time elapsed during which the relation of Ger- 
many to the Roman Empire might be called a truce. No serious 
attempt was made by the unworthy successors of Augustus to 
extend their sway beyond the banks of the Rhine and the 
Danube; and, as Tiberius had predicted, the German tribes 
were so weakened by their own civil wars that they were 
unable to cope with such a power as Rome. Even the Cherusci, 
Hermann's own people, became so diminished in numbers that, 
before the end of the first century, they ceased to exist as a 
separate tribe : their fragments were divided and incorporated 
with their neighbors on either side. Another tribe, the Ampsi- 
varii, was destroyed in a war with the Chauci, and even the 
power of the fierce Chatti was broken by a great victory of 
the Hermunduri over them, in a quarrel concerning the posses- 
sion of a sacred salt-spring. 

About the middle of the first century , however , an event 
is mentioned which shows that the Germans were beginning to 
appreciate and imitate the superior civilization of Rome. The 
Chauci, dwelling on the shores of the North Sea, built a fleet 
and sailed along the coast to the mouth of the Rhine, which 
they entered in the hope of exciting the Batavi and Frisii to 
rebellion. A few years afterwards the Chatti, probably for the 

What was the state of affairs after the death of Hermann? What was the 
condition of the German tribes? What became of the Cherusci? What 
happened to the Ampsivarii? to the Chatti? What is mentioned of the Chauci, 
and when? 



36 THE INVASION OF CEREALIS. [tO A. D. 

sake of plunder, crossed the Rhine and invaded part of Gaul. 
Both attempts failed entirely; and the only serious movement 
of the Germans against Rome, during the century, took place 
while Yitellius and Vespasian were contending for the posses- 
sion of the imperial throne. A German prophetess, by the 
name of Velleda, whose influence seems to have extended over 
all the tribes , promised them victory : they united , organized 
their forces, crossed the Rhine, and even laid siege to Mayence, 
the principal Roman city. 

The success of Vespasian over his rival left him free to 
meet this new danger. But in the meantime the Batavi, under 
their chief, Claudius Civilis, who had been previously fighting 
on the new Emperor ^s side , joined the Gauls in a general in- 
surrection. This was so successful that all northern Gaul, 
from the Atlantic to the Rhine, threw ofi" the Roman yoke. A 
convention of the chiefs was held at Rheims, in order to found 
a Gallic kingdom ; but, instead of adopting measures of defence, 
they quarrelled about the selection of a ruling family, the future 
capital of the kingdom, and other matters of small comparative 
importance. 

The approach of Cerealis, the Roman general sent by Ves- 
pasian with a powerful army in the year 70, put an end to 
the Gallic insurrection. Most of the Gallic tribes submitted 
without resistance : the Treviri, on the Moselle, were defeated 
in battle , the cities and fortresses on tho -western bank of the 
Rhine were retaken, and the Roman frontier was re-established. 
Nevertheless, the German tribes which had been allied with 
the Gauls — among them the Batavi — refused to submit, and 
they were strong enough to fight two bloody battles, in which 
Cerealis was only saved from defeat by what the Romans con- 
sidered to be the direct interposition of the gods. The Batavi, 
although finally subdued in their home in Holland, succeeded 
in getting possession of the Roman admiral's vessel, by a night 
attack on his fleet on the Rhine. This trophy they sent by 



What other movement took place ? What was its result ? What tribe 
joined the Gauls? Who was its chief? How far was it successful? What 
followed? How did the Convention at Rheims act? What put an end to 
the insurrection ? When was it ? What advantages were gained by the Ro« 
mans? How did the German tribes meet them? 



100 A. D.J GERMAN LEGIONS UNDER ROME. 37 

way of the river Lippe , an eastern branch of the Illiine, as a 
present to the great prophetess, Yelleda. 

The defeat of the German tribes by Cerealis was not fol- 
lowed by a new Roman invasion of their territory. The Rhine 
remained the boundary, although the Romans crossed the 
river at various points and built fortresses upon the eastern 
bank. They appear, in like manner, to have crossed the Da- 
nube, and they also gradually acquired possession of the south- 
western corner of Germany, lying between the head- waters of 
that river and the Rhine. This region (now occupied by Baden 
and part of Wiirtemberg) had been deserted by the Marco- 
manni when they marched to Bohemia, and it does not appear 
that any other German tribe attempted to take permanent 
possession of it. Its first occupants, the Helvetians, were now 
settled in Switzerland. 

The enlisting of Germans to serve as soldiers in the Roman 
army, begun by Julius Caesar, was continued by the Emperors. 
The proofs of their heroism , which the Germans had given in 
resisting Germanicus , made them desirable as troops ; and, 
since they were accustomed to fight with their neighbors at 
home, they had no scruples in fighting them under the banner 
of Rome. Thus one German legion after another was formed, 
taken to Rome, Spain, Greece or the East, and its veterans, 
if they returned home when disabled by age or wounds , car- 
ried with them stories of the civilized world , of cities, palaces 
and temples, of agriculture and the arts, of a civil and political 
system far wiser and stronger than their own. 

The series of good Emperors, from Vespasian to Marcus 
Aurelius (a. d. 70 to 181) formed military colonies of their 
veteran soldiers, whether German, Gallic or Roman, in the 
region originally inhabited by the Marcomanni. They were 
governed by Roman laws, and they paid a tithe, or tenth 
part, of their revenues to the Empire, whence this district was 
called the Agri Deciimates, or Tithe -Lands. As it had no 



What trophy was won by the Batavi? What did they do with it? What 
was the western boundary of Germany? What territory did the Ro- 
mans acquire? Who had formerly inhabited it? Why did the Romans desire 
German troops? Why were the Germans willing to enlist? What became 
of the German legions ? What Emperors formed military colonies, and where? 
What was the territory called, and why? 



38 THE ROMAN FBONTIER. [l50 A. D 

definite boundary towards the north and north-east, the settle- 
ments gradually extended to the Main, and at last included a 
triangular strip of territory extending from that river to the 
Rhine at Cologne. By this time the Romans had built, in their 
provinces of Rhaetia, Noricum and Pannonia, south of the 
Danube , the cities of Augusta Vindelicorum , now Augsburg, 
and Vindobona, now Vienna, with another on the north bank 
of the Danube, where Ratisbon stands at present. 

From the last-named point to the Rhine at Cologne they 
built a stockade, protected by a deep ditch, to keep off the 
independent German tribes, even as they had built a wall 
across the north of England, to keep off the Picts and Scots. 
Traces of this line of defence are still to be seen. Another 
and shorter line, connecting the head-waters of the Main with 
the Lake of Constance, j)rotected the territory on the east. 
Their frontier remained thus clearly defined for nearly two 
hundred years. On their side of the line they built fortresses 
and cities, which they connected by good highways, they in- 
troduced a better system of agriculture , established commer- 
cial intercourse, not only between their own provinces but 
also with the independent tribes, and thus extended the in- 
fluence of their civilization. For the first time, fi'uit-trees were 
planted on German soil: the rich cloths and ornaments of Italy 
and the East, the arms and armor, the gold and silver, and 
the wines of the South , soon found a market within the Ger- 
man territory; while the horses and cattle, furs and down, 
smoked beef and honey of the Germans, the fish of their 
streams, and the radishes and asparagus raised on the Rhine, 
were sent to Rome in exchange for those luxuries. Wherever 
the Romans discovered a healing spring, as at Baden-Baden, 
Aix-la-Chapelle and Spa, they built splendid baths ; where they 
found ores or marble in the mountains, they established mines 
or hewed columns for their temples, and the native tribes were 
thus taught the unsuspected riches of their own land. 



How far did the new settlements extend? What cities did the Ro- 
mans build, and where? "What frontier defence did they construct? What 
was tlie shorter line? How long were the boundaries thus marked? What 
improvements did the Romans make? What commerce sprang up? How 
else did the Romans develop the country? 



166 A. D.J WAR OF THE MARCOMANNI. 39 

For nearly a hundred years after Vespasian's accession to 
the throne, there was no serious interruption to the peaceful 
intercourse of the two races. During this time, we must take 
it for granted that a gradual change must have been growing 
up in the habits and ideas of the Germans. It is probable that 
they then began to collect in villages; to use stone as well as 
wood in building their houses and fortresses; to depend more 
on agriculture and less or? hunting and fishing, for their sub- 
sistence ; and to desire the mechanical skill , the arts of civi- 
lization, which the Romans possessed. The extinction of many 
smaller tribes, also, taught them the necessity of learning to 
subdue their internal feuds, an^ assist instead of destroying 
each other. On the north of them was the sea ; on the east the 
Sarmatians and other Slavonic tribes, much more savage 
than themselves : in every other direction they were confronted 
by Rome. The complete subjugation of their Celtic neighbors 
in Gaul was always before their eyes. In Hermann's day, they 
were still too ignorant to understand the necessity of his plan 
of union ; but now that tens of thousands of their people had 
learned the extent and power of the Roman Empire, and the 
commercial intercourse of a hundred years had shown them 
their own deficiencies, they reached the point where a new 
development in their history became possible. 

Such a development came to disturb the reign of the noble 
Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in the latter half of the second 
century. About the year 166, all the German tribes, from 
the Danube to the Baltic, united in a grand movement against 
the Roman Empire. The Marcomanni, who still inhabited 
Bohemia, appear as their leaders, and the Roman writers 
attach their name to the long and desperate war which ensued. 
We have no knowledge of the cause of this struggle, the manner 
in which the union of the Germans was effected, or even the 
names of their leaders: we only know that their invasion of 
the Roman territory was several times driven back and several 
times recommenced; that Marcus Aurelius died in Vienna, in 



How long did peace last? What changes probably took place among the 
Germans? What new political development? How were the Germans bounded? 
What had they learned, since Hermann's time? What was their first unitod 
movement, and when? What do we know about it? 
3 



40 CONDITION OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE. [200 A. D. 

181, without having seen the end; and that his son and suc- 
cessor, Commodus, bought a peace instead of winning it by 
the sword. At one time , during the war , the Chatti forced 
their way through the Tithe -Lands and Switzerland, and 
crossed the Alps; at another, the Marcomanni and Quadi be- 
sieged the city of Aquileia, on the northern shore of the 
Adriatic. 

The ancient boundary between the Roman Empire and 
Germany was restored, but at a cost which the former could 
not pay a second time. For a hundred and fifty years longer 
the Emperors preserved their territority : Rome still ruled, in 
name, from Spain to the Tigris, from Scotland to the Desert 
of Sahara, but her power was like a vast, hollow shell. Luxury, 
vice, taxation and continual war had eaten out the heart of 
the Empire; Italy had grown weak and was slowly losing its 
population, and the same causes were gradually ruining Spain, 
Gaul and Britain. During this period the German tribes, 
notwithstanding their terrible losses in war, had preserved 
their vigor by the simplicity., activity and morality of their 
habits: they had considerably increased in numbers, and from 
the time of Marcus Aurelius on, they felt themselves secure 
against any further invasion of their territor}'. 

Then commenced a series of internal changes, concerning 
which, unfortunately, we have no history. We can only guess 
that their origin dates from the union of all the principal tribes 
under the lead of the Marcomanni, but whether they were 
broucfht about with or without internal wars; whether wise 
and far-seeing chiefs or the sentiment of the people themselves, 
contributed most to their consummation; finally, when these 
changes began and when they were completed — are questions 
which can never be accurately settled. 

When the Germans again appear in history, in the third 
century of our era, w^e are surprised to find that the names of 
nearly all the tribes with which we are familiar have dis- 
appeared, and new names, of much wider significance, have 



How was the war terminated? "What invasions, of Roman territory oc- 
curred? How much lonf^er was the boundary maintained? How far did the 
Roman rule extend? What changes were going on? What was the condition 
of the German tribes? What probably gave rise to their internal changes? 
What questions cannot be accurately settled? 



250 300 A. D.J GEEMAN NATIONALITIES. 41 

taken their places. Instead of twenty or thirty small divisions, 
we now find the race consolidated into four chief nationalities, 
with two other inferior though independent branches. We 
also find that the geographical situation of the latter is no 
longer the same as that of the smaller tribes out of which they 
grew. Migrations must have taken place, large tracts of terri- 
tory must have changed hands, many reigning families must 
have been overthrown, and new ones arisen, — in short, the 
change in the organization of the Germans is so complete that 
it can hardly have been accomplished by peaceable means. 
Each of the new nationalities has an important part to play 
in the history of the following centuries, and we will therefore 
describe them separately : 

1. — The Alemanni. The name of this division {Alle- 
manncn,^ signifying "all men") shows that it was com- 
posed of fragments of many tribes. The Alemanni first made 
their appearance along the Main, and gradually pushed 
southward over the Tithe-Lands, where the military veterans 
of Rome had settled , until they occupied the greater part of 
South -Western Germany, and Eastern Switzerland, to the 
Alps. Their descendants inhabit the same territory, to this day. 

2. — The Feanks. It is not known whence this name was 
derived, nor what is its meaning. The Franks are believed to 
have been formed out of the Sicambrians, in Westphalia, 
together with a portion of the Chatti and the Batavi in Holland, 
and other tribes. We first hear of them on the Lower Khine, 
but they soon extended their territory over a great part of 
Belgium and Westphalia. Their chiefs were already called 
kings, and their authority was hereditary. 

3. — The Saxons. This was one of the small original tribes, 
settled in Holstein: the name is derived from their peculiar 
weapon, a short sword, called saJis, We find them now 
occupying nearly ^11 the territory between the Hartz Mountains 



What changes do we find when the Germans again appear in history ? 
How many new nationalities? What of their geographical location? What 
must have taken place, to produce these changes? What is the first division? 
What does the name signify? How were the Franks formed? Where do we 
find them? How were they ruled? Who were the Saxons? Whence oomea 
the name? 

* Alle-magne remains the French name for Germany. 



42 GEKMAN NATIONALITIES. [250 300 A. D, 

and the North Sea, from the Elbe westward to the Rhine. The 
Cherusci, the Chauci, and other tribes named by Tacitus, were 
evidently incorporated with the Saxons, who exhibit the same 
characteristics. There appears to have been a natural enmity 
— no doubt bequeathed from the earlier tribes out of which 
both grew — between them and the Franks. 

4. — The Goths. The traditions of the Goths state that 
they were settled in Sweden before they were found by the 
Greek navigators on the southern shore of the Baltic, in 330 
B. c. It is probable that only a portion of the tribe migrated, 
and that the present Scandinavian race is descended from the 
remainder. As the Baltic Goths increased in numbers, they 
gradually ascended the Vistula, pressed eastward along the 
base of the Carpathians and reached the Black Sea, in the 
course of the second century after Christ. They thus possessed 
a broad belt of territory, separating the rest of Europe from 
the wilder Slavonic races who occupied Central Russia. The 
Vandals and Alans, with the Heruli, Rugii and other smaller 
tribes, all Germanic, as well as a portion of the Slavonic 
Sarmatians, were incorporated with them; and it was probably 
tlie great extent of territory they controlled which occasioned 
their separation into Ostrogoths (East-Goths) and Visigoths 
(West-Goths). They first came in contact with the Romans, 
beyond the mouth of the Danube, about the beginning of the 
third century. 

5. — The Thuringians. This branch had only a- short na- 
tional existence. It was composed of the Hermunduri, with 
fragments of other tribes, united under one king, and occupied 
all of Central Germany, from the Hartz southward to the 
Danube. 

6. — The Burgundians. Leaving their original home in 
Prussia, between the Oder and the Vistula, the Burgundians 
crossed the greater part of Germany in a south-western direc- 
tion, and first settled in a portion of what is now Franconia, 

Where do we find them? What tribes were united with them? What 
was their relation to the Franks? What was the tradition of the Goths? 
Describe the migrations of the Goths. What was their territory? Wbat 
other tribes were united with them? Why did they divide? Into what 
branches? When and where did they first meet tlie Romans? Wlio were 
the Thuringians? What was their territory? Whence did the Burgundians 
move, and whither? 



251 A. D.] 



THE GOTHS. 



43 



between the Tlmringians and the Alemanm. Not long after- 
wards, however, they passed througli the latter, and took pos- 
session of the country on the west bank of the Rhine, between 
Strasburg and Mayence. 

Caracalla came into collision with the Alemanni in the, 
year 213, and the Emperor Maximin, who was a Goth on his 
father's side, laid waste their territory, in 236. About the 




THE GOTHb, 



latter period, the Franks began to make predatory incursions 
into Gaul, and the Goths became troublesome to the Romans, 
on the lower Danube. In 251 the Emperor Decius found his 
death among the marshes of Dacia, while trying to stay the 
Gothic invasion, and his successor, Gallus, only obtained a 
temporary peace by agreeing to pay an annual sum of money, 



Where did they finally settle? When were the troubles between the Ale- 
manni and the Romans? What movements did the Franks make? the Goths? 



44 INCUKSIONS or the GOTHS. [270 A. D. 

thus really making Rome a tributary power. But the Empire 
had become impoverished, and the payment soon ceased. 
Thereupon the Goths built fleets, and made voyages of plunder, 
first to Trebizond and the other towns on the Asiatic shore of 
the Black Sea; then they passed the Hellespont, took and 
plundered the great city of Nicomedia, Ephesus with its famous 
temple, the Grecian isles, and even Corinth, Argos and Athens. 
In the meantime the Alemanni had resumed the ojBfensive : they 
came through Rhaetium and descended to the Garda lake, in 
Northern Italy. 

The Emperor, Claudius II., turned back this double in- 
vasion. He defeated and drove back the Alemanni, and then, 
in the year 270, won a great victory over the Goths, in the 
neighborhood of Thessalonica. His successor, Aurelian, followed 
up the advantage, and in the following year made a treaty 
with the Goths, by which the Danube became the frontier be- 
tween them and the Romans. The latter gave up to them the 
province of Dacia, lying north of the river, and withdrew their 
colonists and military garrisons to the southern side. 

Both the Franks and Saxons profited by these events. 
They let their mutual hostility rest for awhile, built fleets, 
and sailed forth in the West on voyages of plunder, like their 
relatives, the Goths, in the East. The Saxons descended on 
the coasts of Britain and Gaul; the Franks sailed to Spain, and 
are said to have even entered the Mediterranean. When Probus 
became Emperor, in the year 276, he found a great part of 
Gaul overrun and ravaged by them and by the Alemanni, on 
the Upper Rhine. He succeeded, after a hard struggle, in 
driving back the German invaders, restored the line of stockade 
from the Rhine to the Danube, and built new fortresses along 
the frontier. On the other hand, he introduced into Germany 
the cultivation of the vine, which the previous Emperors had 
not permitted, and thus laid the foundation of the famous 
vineyards of the Rhine and the Moselle. 



"When was peace made with the Goths? By whom? On what condition? 
Describe the Gothic invasions in the East. How far did the Alemanni 
penetrate? Who arrested the invasion, when, and where? What was the 
boundary established? What did the Komans yield? What did the Franks 
do, at this time? the Saxons? What did Probus accomi)lish, and when? 
What did he give the Germans, in return? 



300 A. D.] CONSTANTINE's SUCCESSES. 45 

Probus endeavored to weaken the power of the Germans, 
by separating and colonizmg them, wherever it was possible. 
One of his experiments, however, had a very different result 
from what he expected. He transported a large number of 
Frank captives to the shore of the Black Sea; but, instead of 
quietly settling there, they got possession of some vessels, 
soon formed a large fleet, sailed into the Mediterranean, 
plundered the coasts of Asia Minor, Greece and Sicily, where 
they even captured the city of Syracuse, and at last, after 
many losses and marvellous adventures, made their way by 
sea to their homes on the Lower Rhine. 

Towards the close of the third century, Constantine, during 
the reign of his father, Constantius, suppressed an insurrec- 
tion of the Franks, and even for a time drove them from their 
islands on the coast of Holland. He afterwards crossed the 
Rhine, but found it expedient not to attempt an expedition 
into the interior. He appears to have had no war with the Ale- 
manni, but he founded the city of Constance , on the lake of 
the same name, for the purpose of keeping them in check. 

The boundaries between Germany and Rome still remained 
the Rhine and the Danube, but on the east they were extended 
to the Black Sea, and in place of the invasions of Caesar, Drusus 
and Germanicus, the Empire was obliged to be content when 
it succeeded in repelling the invasions made upon its own soil. 
Three hundred years of very slow, but healthy growth on the 
one side, and of luxury, corruption and despotism on the 
other, had thus changed the relative position of the two races. 



How did he try to weaken their power? Describe one of his experiments. 
What success had Constantine in Germany? What city did he found? What 
were now the relative positions of Rome and Germany? 



46 EISE OF THE GOTHS. [325 A. 1). 



CHAPTER V. 

THE EISE AND MIGEATIOXS OF THE GOTHS. 
(300—412.) 

Bise of the Goths.— German Invasions of Gaul.— "Victories of Julian. — The 
Ostrogoths and Visigoths.— Bishop Ulfila. — The Gothic Language.— The 
Gothic King, Athanaric. — The Coming of the Huns.— Death of Hermanric. 
— The Goths take refuge in Thrace.— Their Revolt. — Defeat of Valens. — 
The Goths under Theodosius.— The Franks and Goths meet in Battle. — 
Alaric, the Visigoth. — He invades Greece. — Battle with Stilicho. — Alaric 
besieges Rome. — He enters Rome, A. d. 410. — His Death and Burial.- Sue 
cession of Ataulf.— The Visigoths settle in Southern Gaul.— Beginning oj 
other Migrations. 

Rome, as the represeiitative of the civilization of the world, 
and, after the year 313, as the political power which left 
Christianity free to overthrow the ancient religions, is still the 
central point of historical interest during the greater part of 
the fourth century. Until the death of the Emperor Valentinian, 
in 375, the ancient boundaries of the Empire, though fre- 
quently broken down, were continually re-established, and the 
laws and institutions of the Romans had prevailed so long 
throughout the great extent of conquered territory that the 
inhabitants now knew no other. 

But beyond the Danube had arisen a new power, the in- 
dependence of which, after the time of Aurelian, was never 
disputed by the Roman Emperors. The Goths were the first 
of the Germanic tribes to adopt a monarchical form of govern- 
ment, and to acquire some degree of civilization. They were 
numerous and well- organized; and Constantine, who was more 
of a diplomatist than a general, found it better to preserve 
peace with them for forty years , by presents and payments, 
than to provoke them to war. His best soldiers were enlisted 
among them , and it was principally the valor of his Gothic 
troops which enabled him to defeat the rival emperor, Licinius, 
in 325. From that time, 40,000 Goths formed the main 
strength of his army. 

How long did the influence of Rome last? When was the independence 
of the Gotlis recognized? What was tlieir form of government? What was 
Constantine's policy towards them? What did ho owe to the Gothic troops? 
How many were in his army? 



350 A. D.] YICTOE-IES OF JULIAN. 47 

The important part which these people played in the history 
of Europe renders it necessary that we should now sketch their 
rise and growth as a nation. First, however, let us turn to 
Western and Northern Germany, where the development of 
the new nationalities was longer delayed, and describe the last 
of their struggles with the power of Eome, during the fourth 
century. 

After the death of Constantine, in 337; the quarrels of his 
sons and brothers for the Imperial throne gave the Germans 
a new opportunity to repeat their invasions of Gaul. The 
Franks were the first to take advantage of it: they got j)osses- 
sion of Belgium, which was not afterwards retaken. The Ale- 
manni followed, and planted themselves on the western bank 
of the Rhine, w^hich they held, although Strasburg and other 
fortified cities still belonged to the Romans. About the year 
350, a Frank or Saxon, by the name of Magnentius, was pro- 
claimed Emperor by a part of the Roman army. He was defeated 
by the true Emperor, Constantius 11. , but the victory seems 
to have exhausted the military resources of the latter, for im- 
mediately afterwards another German invasion occurred. 

This time, the Franks took and pillaged Cologne, the Ale- 
manni destroyed Strasburg and Mayence, and the Saxons, who 
had now become a sea-faring people, visited the north-western 
coasts of Gaul. Constantius II. gave the command to his 
nephew, Julian (afterwards, as Emperor, called the Apostate), 
who first retook Cologne from the Franks, and then turned 
his forces against the Alemanni. The king of the latter, 
Chnodomar, had collected a large army, with which he en- 
countered Julian on the banks of the Rhine, near Strasburg. 
The battle which ensued was fiercely contested ; but Julian was 
completely victorious, Chnodomar was taken prisoner, and 
only a few of his troops escaped, like those of Ariovistus, 400 
years before, by swimming across the Rhine. Although the 
season was far advanced, Julian followed them, crossed their 
territory to the Main, rebuilt the destroyed Roman fortresses, 



What enabled the Germans to invade Gaul? "Who were the first? Who 
next? What territory did each take? When, and under what circumstances, 
occurred the next invasion? What was done by the Franks and Saxons? 
What Eoman commander was appointed? What did he do? Who was king 
of the Alemanni? What was the result of the battle? 



48 TERKITORY OF THE GOTHS. [375 A. D. 

and fiually accepted an armistice of ten months wLich they 
offered to him. 

He made use of this time to intimidate the Franks and 
Saxons. Starting from Lutsetia (now Paris) early in the summer 
of 358, he drove the Franks beyond ^he Schelde, received their 
submission, and then marched a second time against the Ale- 
manni. He laid waste their well-settled and cultivated land 
between the Rhine, the Main and the Neckar, crossed their 
territory to the frontiers of the Burgundians (in what is now 
Franconia, or Northern Bavaria), liberated 20,000 Boman 
captives, and made the entire Alemannic people tributary to 
the Empire. His accession to the imperial throne, in 360, de- 
livered the Germans from the most dangerous and dreaded 
enemy they had known since the time of Germanicus. 

Not many years elapsed before the Franks and Alemanni 
again overran the old boundaries , and the Saxons landed on 
the shores of England. The Emperor Valentinian employed 
both diplomacy and force, and succeeded in establishing a 
temporary peace; but after his death, in the year 375, the 
Boman Empire, the capital of which had been removed to 
Constantinople in 330, was never again in a condition to 
maintain its supremacy in Gaul, or to prevent the Germans 
from crossing the Bhine. 

We now return to the Goths, who already occupied the 
broad territory included in Poland, Southern Bussia, and Bou- 
mania. The river Dniester may be taken as the probable bound- 
ary between the two kingdoms into which they had separated. 
The Ostrogoths, under their aged king, Hermanric, extended 
from that river eastward nearly to the Caspian Sea: on the 
north they had no fixed boundary, but they must have reached 
to the latitude of Moscow. The Visigoths stretched westward 
from the Dniester to the Danube, and northward from Hungary 
to the Baltic Sea. The Vandals were for some generations 
allied with the latter, but war having arisen between them, 
the Emperor Constantino interposed. He succeeded in effecting 
a separation of the two, and in settling the Vandals in Hungary, 

How did Julian follow up the victory? What was his next movement? 
What did he accomplish? When were the Germans relieved of him, and how? 
What was the condition of the Eoman Empire? What was the territory oi 
the Ostrogoths? What that of the Visigoths? 



350 A. D.] BISHOP ULFILA. 49 

where they remained for forty years under the protection of 
the Reman Empire. 

From the time of their first encounter with the Romans, 
in Dacia, during the third century, the Goths appear to have 
made rapid advances in their political organization and the 
arts of civilized life. They were the first of the Germanic 
nations who accepted Christianity. On one of their piratical 
expeditions to the shores of Asia Minor, they brought away, 
as captive, a Christian boy. They named him Ulfila, and by 
that name he is still known to the world. He devoted his life 
to the overthrow of their pagan faith, and succeeded. He 
translated the Bible into their language , and , it is supposed, 
even invented a Gothic alphabet, since it is doubtful whether 
they already possessed one. A part of Ulfila's translation of the 
New Testament escaped destruction, and is ,now preserved in 
the library at Upsala, in Sweden. It is the only specimen in 
existence, of the Gothic language at that early day. From it 
we learn how rich and refined was that language, and how 
many of the elements of the German and English tongues it 
contained. The following are the opening words of the Lord's 
Prayer, as Ulfila wrote them between the years 350 and 370 
of our era : • 

Gothic. Atta unsara, ihu in himinam, veihnai namo thein, quimai 

English. Father our, thou in heaven, be hallowed name thine, come 
Geeman. Yater unser, du im Himmel, geweiht werde Name dein. komme 

Gothic. Thiudinassus Theins. vairthai vilja theins, sve in himina, jah ana airthai. 
English. Kingdom thine, be done wiU thine , as in heaven, also on earth. 
Geeman. Herrschaft dein. werde Wille dein, wie imHimmel,auchaufErden. 

Ulfila was born in 318, became a bishop of the Christian 
Church, spent his whole life in teaching the Goths, and died 
in Constantinople, in the year 378. There is no evidence that 



How were the Yandals separated from them? How did the Goths develop 
themselves? What was their religion? Who was Ulfila? What work did he 
perform? Where is his New Testament, and what value has it? What do 
we learn from it? Mention some Gothic words wliich are also English. What 
is the date of Ulfila's birth and death? 



50 COMING OF THE HUNS. [375 A. D 

he, or any other of the Christian missonaries of his time , was 
persecuted, or even seriously hindered in the good work, by 
the Goths: the latter seem to have adopted the new faith 
readily, and the Arian creed which Ulfila taught, although re- 
jected by the Church of Rome, was stubbornly held by their 
descendants for a period of nearly five hundred years. 

Somewhere between 360 and 370, the long peace between 
the Romans and the Goths was disturbed; but the Emperor 
Valens and the Gothic king, Athanaric, had a conference on 
board a vessel on the Danube, and came to an understanding. 
Athanaric refused to cross the river, on account of a vow made 
on some former occasion. The Goths, it appears, were by this 
time learning the art of statesmanship, and they might have 
continued on good terms with the Romans, but for the sudden 
appearance on the scene of an entirely new race, coming, as 
they themselves had come so many centuries before, from the 
unknown regions of Central Asia. 

In 375, the year of Yalentinian's death, a race of people 
up to that time unknown, and whose name — the Huns — had 
never before been heard, crossed the Volga and invaded the 
territory of the Ostrogoths. Later researches render it probable 
that they came from th« steppes of Mongolia, and that they 
belonged to the Tartar family; but, in the course of their 
wanderings, before reaching Europe, they had not only lost 
all the traditions of their former history, but even their religious 
faith. Their very appearance struck terror into the Goths, 
who where so much further advanced in civilization. They 
were short, clumsy figures, with broad and hideously ugly 
faces, flat noses, oblique eyes and long black hair, and were 
clothed in skins which they wore until they dropped in rags 
from their bodies. But they were marvellous horsemen, and 
very skilful in using the bow and lance. The men were on 
their horses' backs from morning till night, while the women 
and children followed their march in rude carts. They came 



What creed did the Goths accept? How long did they retain it? When 
was the peace disturbed? How restored? Wliat circumstance gave rise to 
new troubles? What new race appeared, when, and where? What was 
their probable origin? What was their personal appearance and dress? What 
were their habits of life? 



375 A. D.] 



DEFEAT OF THE OSTBOGOTHS. 



51 



in such immense numbers, and showed so much savage daring 
and bravery, that several smaller tribes, allied with the 
Ostrogoths, or subject to them, went over immediately to 
the Huns. 

The kingdom of the Ostrogoths, almost without offering 




ENCAMPMENT Or TUB HUNB. 



resistance, fell to pieces. Tlio king, Hermanric, now more than 
a hundred years old , threw himself upon his sword , at their 
approach: his successor, Yitimer, gave battle, but lost the 
victory and his life at the same time. The great body of the 
people retreated westward before the Huns, who, following 



What was the effect of their first appearance? What became of the Ostro- 
goths and th.cir kmg? 



52 EBVOLT OE THE VISIGOTHS. [37G A. D. 

them, readied the Dnieper. Here Athanaric, king of the Visi- 
goths, was posted with a large army, to dispute their passage ; 
but the Huns succeeded in finding a fording-place which was 
left unguarded, turned his flank, and defeated him with great 
slaughter. Nothing now remained but for both branches of 
the Gothic people, united in misfortune, to retreat to the 
Danube. 

Athanaric took refuge among the mountains of Tran- 
sylvania, and the Bishop Ulfila was dispatched to Constantinople 
to ask the assistance of the Emperor Yalens, who was entreated 
to permit that the Goths , meanwhile, might cross the Danube 
and find a refuge on Roman territory. Yalens yielded to the 
entreaty, but attached very hard conditions to his permission : 
the Goths were allowed to cross unarmed, after giving up their 
wives and children as hostages. In their fear of the Huns, 
they were obliged to accept these conditions, and hundreds of 
thousands thronged across the Danube. They soon exhausted 
the supplies of the region, and then began to suffer famine, of 
which the Roman officers and traders took advantage, demand- 
ing their children as slaves, in return for the cats and dogs 
which they gave to the Goths as food. 

This treatment brought about its own revenge. Driven to 
desperation by hunger and the outrages inflicted upon them, 
the Goths secretly procured arms, rose, and made themselves 
masters of the country. The Roman governor marched against 
them, but their chief, Fridigern, defeated him and utterly 
destroyed his army. The news of this event induced large 
numbers of Gothic soldiers to desert from the imperial army, 
and join their countrymen. Fridigern, thus strengthened, com- 
menced a war of revenge: he crossed the Balkan, laid waste 
all Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly, and settled his own people 
in the most fertile parts of the plundered provinces. The 
Ostrogoths had crossed the Danube at the first report of his 
success, and had taken part in his conquests. 



What were their habits of life? What was the effect of their first appear- 
ance? What became of the Ostrogoths and their king? How did the Visi- 
goths meet them, and what was the result? What message was sent to Valens? 
What was his answer? How were the Goths treated? What did they do? 
Who was their chief? What did ho accomplish? How far did his conquests 
ey.tend? Who assisted him? 



380 A. D.] THE VISIGOTHS IN THEACE. 53 

Towards the end of the year 377, the Emperor Valens raised 
a large army and marched against Fridigern. A battle was 
fought at the foot of the Balkan, and a second, the following 
year, before the walls of Adrianople. In both the Goths were 
victorious: in the latter two-thirds of the Roman troops fell, 
Valens himself, doubtless, among them, — for he was never 
seen or heard of after that day. His nephew, Gratian, succeeded 
to the throne, but associated with him Theodosius, a young 
Spaniard of great ability, as Emperor of the East. While 
Gratian marched to Gaul, to stay the increasing inroads of the 
Franks, Theodosius was left to deal with the Goths, who were 
beginning to cultivate the fields* of Thrace, as if tliey meant 
to stay there. 

He was obliged to confirm them in the possession of the 
greater part of the country. They were called allies of the 
Empire, were obliged to furnish a certain number of soldiers, 
but retained their own kings, and were governed by their own 
laws. After the death of Fridigern, Theodosius invited A thanaric 
to visit him. The latter, considering himself now absolved 
from his vow not to cross the Danube, accepted the iavitation, 
and was received in Constantinople on the footing of -an equal 
by Theodosius. He died a few weeks after his arrival, and the 
Emperor walked behind his bier, in the funeral procession. 
For several years the relations between the two powers con- 
tinued peaceful and friendly. Both branches of the Goths were 
settled together, south of the Danube , their relinquished terri- 
tory north of that river being occupied by the Huns, who were 
still pressing westward. 

In Italy, Yalentinian II. succeeded his brother Gratian. 
His chief minister was a Frank, named Arbogast, who , learn- 
ing that he was to be dismissed from his place, had the young 
Valentinian assassinated, and set up a new Emperor, Eugene, 
in his stead. This act brought him into direct conflict with 
Theodosius. Arbogast called upon his countrymen, the Franks, 
who send a large body of troops to his assistance , while 
Theodosius strengthened his army with 20,000 Gothic 

Who marched against him, and when? Where was the great battle fought? 
How did it end? "Who succeeded to the Koman throne? What treaty did 
Theodosius make with the Goths? How did he treat Athanaric? Where were 
the Goths and the Huns now settled? What happened in Italy? 



54 ALAEIC INVADES GREECE. [400 A. D. 

soldiers. Then, for the first time, Frank and Goth — West- 
German and East-German — faced each other as enemies. The 
Gothic auxiliaries of Theodosius were commanded by two 
leaders, Alaric and Stilicho, already distinguished among their 
people, and destined to play a remarkable part in the history 
of Europe. The battle between the two armies was fought 
near Aquileia, in the year 394. The sham Emperor, Eugene, 
was captured and beheaded, Arbogast threw himself upon his 
sword, and Theodosius was master of the West. 

The Emperor, however, lived but a few months to enjoy 
his single rule. He died at Mi) an, in 395, after having divided 
the government of the Empire between his two sons. Honorius, 
the elder, was sent to Rome, with the Gothic chieftain, Stilicho, 
as his minister and guardian ; while the boy Arcadius, at Con- 
stantinople, was intrusted to the care of a Gaul, named Rufinus. 
Alaric, perhaps a personal enemy of the latter, perhaps jealous 
of the elevation of Stilicho to such an important place, refused 
to submit to the new government. He collected a large body 
of his countrymen, and set out on a camjoaign of plunder, 
through Greece. Every ancient city, except Thebes, fell into 
his hands, and only Athens was allowed to buy her exemption 
from pillage. 

The Gaul, Rufinus, took no steps to arrest this devastation ; 
wherefore, it is said, he was murdered at the instigation of 
Stilicho, who then sent a fleet against Alaric. This under- 
taking was not entirely successful, and the government of 
Constantinople finally purchased peace by making Alaric the 
Imperial Legate in Illyria. In the year 403 , he was sent to 
Italy, as the rejDresentative of the Emperor Arcadius, to over- 
throw the power of his former fellow-chieftain, Stilicho, who 
ruled in the name of Honorius. His approach, with a large 
army, threw the whole country into terror. Honorius shut 
himself up within the walls of Ravenna , while Stilicho called 
the legions from Gaul, and even from Britain, to his support. 
A great battle was fought near the Po, but without deciding 

"What two Germanic tribos met as enemies? Who were the Gothic leaders? 
When and where was tlie battle? WHiat was its result? When did Theodosius 
die? Who succeeded him? What was Alaric's course? What lands did he 
plunder? How was peace made with him? When and why was ho sent to 
Italy? W^hat happened at his approach? 



408 A. D.] ALAEIC BEFOKE EOME. 55 

the struggle; and Alaric had already begun to march towards 
Rome, when a treaty was made by which he and his army 
were allowed to return to Illyria with all the booty they had 
gathered in Italy. 

Five years afterwards, when Stilicho was busy in endeavor- 
ing to keep the Franks and Alemanni out of Gaul, and to 
drive back the incursions of mixed German and Celtic bands 
which began to descend from the Alps, Alaric again made his 
appearance, demanding the payment of certain sums, which he 
claimed were due to him. Stilicho, having need of his military 
strength elsewhere, satisfied Alaric^s claim by the payment 
of 4,000 pounds of gold; but the Romans felt themselves 
bitterly humiliated, and Honorius, listening to the rivals of 
Stilicho, gave his consent to the assassination of the latter and 
his whole family, including the Emperor's own sister, Serena, 
whom Stilicho had married. 

When the news of this atrocious act reached Alaric, he 
turned and marched back to Italy. There was now no skilful 
commander to oppose him : the cowardly Honorius took refuge 
in Ravenna, and the Goths advanced, without resistance, to 
the gates of Rome. The walls, built by Aurelian, were too 
strong to be taken by assault, but all supplies were cut off, 
and the final surrender of the city became only a question of 
time. When a deputation of Romans represented to Alaric 
that the people still numbered half a million, he answered: 
*'The thicker the grass, the better the mowing 1" They were 
finally obliged to yield to his demands, and pay a ransom con- 
sisting of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 
many thousands of silk robes , and a large quantity of spices, 
— a total value of something more than three millions of dol- 
lars. In addition to this, 40,000 slaves, mostly of Germanic 
blood, escaped to his camp and became free. 

Alaric only withdrew into northern Italy , where he soon 
found a new cause of dispute with the government of Honorius, 
in Ravenna. He seems to have been a man of great military 
genius, but little capacity for civil rule; of much energy and 

What was the end of the expedition? Why did he return to Italy, and 
wlien? What arrangement did Stilicho make? What was his fate? What 
did Alaric then do? What was his answer to the Komans? On what con- 
ditions did he spare Kome? What seems to have been his character? 



56 DEATH OF ALAEIC. Ull A. D. 

ambition, but little judgment. The result of his quarrel with 
Honorius was, that he marched again to Rome, proclaimed 
Attains, the governor of the city. Emperor, and then demanded 
entrance for himself and his troops , as an ally. The demand 
could not be refused: Rome was opened to the Goths, who 
participated in the festivals which accompanied the coronation 
of Attains. It was nothing but a farce, and seems to have been 
partly intended as such by Alaric, who publicly deposed the 
new Emperor, shortly afterwards, on his march to Ravenna. 

There were further negotiations with Honorius, which 
came to nothing; then Alaric advanced upon Rome the third 
time, not now as an ally, but as an avowed enemy. The city 
could make no resistance, and on the 24th of August, 410, the 
Goths entered it as conquerors. This event, so famous in 
history, has been greatly misrepresented. Later researches 
show that, although the citizens were despoiled of their wealth, 
the buildings and monuments were spared. The people were 
subjected to violence and outrage, for the space of six days, 
after which Alaric marched out of Rome with his army, leaving 
the city, in its external appearance, very much as he found it. 

He directed his course towards Southern Italy , with the 
intention , it was generally believed, of conquering Sicily and 
then crossing into Africa. The plan was defeated by his death, 
in 411, at Cosenza, a town on the banks of the Busento, in 
Calabria. His soldiers turned the river from its course, dug 
a grave in its bed, and there laid the body of Alaric, with all 
the gems and gold he had gathered. Then the Busento was 
restored to its channel, and the slaves who had performed the 
work were slain , in order that Alaric's place of burial might 
never be known. 

His brother-in-law, Ataulf (Adolph), was his successor. 
He was also the brother-in-law of Honorius, having married 
the latter's sister, Placidia, after she was taken captive by 
Alaric. He was therefore strengthened by the conquests of 
the one and by his family connexion with the other. The Visi- 
goths, who had gradually gathered together under Alaric, 

What was the result of his quarrel with Honorius? What did he do in 
Rome? How did he come, the third time? When did ho enter Rome? What 
damage did he do to the city? What was his design, afterwards? When 
and where did he die? How was he buried? Who was his successor? 



412 A. D.J 



THE VISIGOTHS IN GAUL. 



57 



seem to have had enough of marching to and fro, and they 
acquiesced in an arrangement made between Ataulf and Hono- 
rius , according to which the former led them out of Italy in 




THE BURIAIi OF AI»AEIC. 



412, and established them in Southern Gaul. They took pos- 
session of all the region lying between the Loire and the 
Pyrenees, with Toulouse as their capital. 



What treaty was made by Ataulf? Where did the Visigoths settle? What 
was their capital? 



58 THE MIGEATIONS. [412 A. D. 

Thus, in the space of forty years , the Yisigoths left their 
home on the Black Sea, between the Danube and the Dniester, 
passed through the whole breadth of the Roman Empire, from 
Constantinople to the Bay of Biscay, after having traversed 
both the Grecian and Italian peninsulas, and settled themselves 
again in what seemed to be a permanent home. During this 
extraordinary migration, they maintained their independence 
as a people, they preserved their laws, customs and their own 
rulers; and, although frequently at enmity with the Empire, 
they were never made to yield it allegiance. Under Athan- 
aric , as we have seen , they were united for a time with the 
Ostrogoths, and it was probably the renown and success of 
Alaric which brought about a second separation. 

Of course the impetus given to this branch of the Germanic 
race by the invasion of the Huns did not affect it alone. Be- 
fore the Yisigoths reached the shores of the Atlantic, all Central 
Europe was in movement. Leaving them there for the present, 
and also leaving the great body of the Ostrogoths in Thrace 
and Illyria, we will now return to the nations wdiom we left 
maintaining their existence on German soil. 



CHAPTER YI. 

TNE INVASION OF THE HUNS, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 

(412—472.) 

General Westward Movement of the Eaccs. — Stilicho's Defeat of the Germans. 
— Migration of the Alans, Vandals, &c. — Saxon Coloniziation of England. 
—The Vandals in Africa. — Decline of Rome. — Spread of German Power. — 
Attila, king of the Huns. — Rise of his Power. — Superstitions concerning 
him. — His March into France. — He is opposed by .a^Jetius and Theodoric. 
— The Great Battle near Chalons. — Retreat of Attila.— He destroys Aquileia. 
— Invades Italy.— His Death.— Geiserich takes and plunders Rome. — End 
of the Western Empire.— The Huns expelled. — ^^loveraents of the Tribes 
on German soil. 

The westward movement of the Huns was followed, soon 
afterwards, by an advance of the Slavonic tribes on the north, 



Describe the migrations of the Visigoths. Wliat wiis tlicir political condi- 
tion during this time? Tlieir relation to the Ostrogoths? What other results 
followed the invasions of the Huns? 



412 A. D.] MOVEMENTS OF THE TKIBES. 59 

who first took possession of the territory on the Baltic, relin- 
quished by the Goths, and then gradually pressed onward 
towards the Elbe. The Huns themselves, temporarily settled 
in the fertile region north of the Danube, pushed the Vandals 
westward towards Bohemia, and the latter, in their turn, 
pressed upon the Marcomanni. Thus, at the opening of the 
fifth century, all the tribes, from the Baltic to the Alps, along 
the eastern frontier of Germany, were partly or wholly forced 
to fall back. This gave rise to a union of many of them, in- 
cluding the Vandals , Alans , Suevi and Burgundians , under a 
chief named Radagast. Numbering half a million, they crossed 
the Alps into Northern Italy, and demanded territory for new 
homes. 

Stilicho, exhausted by his struggle with Alaric, whose 
retreat from Italy he had just purchased, could only meet this 
new enemy by summoning his legions from Gaul and Britain. 
He met Radagast at Fiesole (near Florence), and so crippled 
the strength of the invasion that Italy was saved. The German 
tribes recrossed the Alps, and entered Gaul the following year. 
Here they gave up their temporary union, and each tribe se- 
lected its own territory. The Alans pushed forwards , crossed 
the Pyrenees, and finally settled in Portugal; the Vandals 
followed and took possession of all Southern Spain, giving their 
name to (V)-Andalusia; the Suevi, after fighting, but not con- 
quering, the native Basque tribes of the Pyrenees, selected 
what is now the province of Galicia; while the Burgundians 
stretched from the Rhine, through western Switzerland, and 
southward nearly to the mouth of the Rhone. The greater 
part of Gaul was thus already lost to the Roman power. 

The withdrawal of the legions from Britain by Stilicho left 
the population unprotected. The English were then a mixture 
of Celtic and Roman blood, and had become greatly demoralized 
during the long decay of the Empire ; so they were unable to 
resist the invasions of the Picts and Scots, and in this emergency 



What first followed the advance of the Huns? What tribes were displaced, 
near the Danube? What general movement took place, and when? What 
new union was formed, and with what object? How did Stilicho meet the 
danger? Where was the battle, and what were its results? Where did the 
Alans settle? The Vandals? The Suevi? The Burgundians? 



60 THE VANDALS IN AFEICA. [429 A. D. 

they summoned the Saxons and Angles to their aid. Two 
chiefs of the latter, Hengist and Horsa, accepted the invitation, 
landed in England in 449, and received lands in Kent. They 
were followed by such numbers of their countrymen that the 
allies soon became conquerors , and portioned England among 
themselves. They brought with them their speech and their 
ancient pagan religion, and for a time overthrew the rude form 
of Christianity which had prevailed among the Britons since 
the days of Constantine. Only Ireland, the Scottish Highlands, 
Wales and Cornwall resisted the Saxon rule, as, across the 
Channel, in Brittany, a remnant of the Celtic Gauls resisted 
the sway of the Franks. From the year 449 until the landing 
of William the Conqueror, in 1066, nearly all England and 
the Lowlands of Scotland were in the hands of the Saxon race. 

Ataulf, the king of the Visigoths, was murdered soon after 
establishing his people in Southern France. Wallia, his suc- 
cessor, crossed the Pyrenees, drove the Vandals out of northern 
Spain, and made the Ebro river the boundary between them 
and his Visigoths. Fifteen years afterwards, in 429, the Van- 
dals, under their famous king, Geiserich (incorrectly called 
Genseric in many histories), were invited by the Roman Go- 
vernor of Africa to assist him in a revolt against the Empire. 
They crossed the Straits of Gibraltar in a body, took possession 
of all the Roman provinces, as far eastward as Tunis, and made 
Carthage the capital of their new kingdom. The Visigoths 
immediately occupied the remainder of Spain, which they held 
for nearly three hundred years afterwards. 

Thus, although the name and state of an Emperor of the 
West were kept up in Rome until the year 476 , the Empire 
never really existed after the invasion of Alaric. The dominion 
over Italy, Gaul and Spain, claimed by the Emperors of the 
East, at Constantinople, was acknowledged in documents, but 
(except for a short time , under Justinian) was never practi- 



What happened in Britain? "Whom did the English summon, and why? 
What chiefs came to England, and when? Wliat was the consequence? 
What change in religion took place? Where were the Saxons resisted? Who 
resisted the Franks in Gaul ? How long was England in the hands of the 
Saxons? What took place among the Visigoths, at this time? When did the 
Vandals cross to Africa? Why? What did they do there? How lonsf did 
the Visigoths possess Spain? 



445 A. D.] ATTILA, KIXG OF THE HUNS. 61 

cally exercised. Home had been the supreme power of the 
known world for so many centuries, that a superstitious in- 
fluence still clung to the very name, and the ambition of the 
Germanic kings seems to have been, not to destroy the Empire, 
but to conquer and make it their own. 

The rude tribes, which, in the time of Julius Caesar, were 
buried among the mountains and forests of the country be- 
tween the Rhine, the Danube and the Baltic Sea, were now, 
five hundred years later, scattered over all Europe, and begin- 
ning to establish new nations on the foundations laid by Rome. 
As soon as they cross the old boundaries of Germany, they 
come into the light of history, and we are able to follow their 
wars and migrations; but we know scarcely anything, during 
this period, of the tribes which remained within those bound- 
aries. \Ye can only infer that the Marcomanni settled be- 
tween the Danube and the Alps, in what is now Bavaria; that, 
early in the fifth century, the Thiiringians established a king- 
dom including nearly all Central Germany; and that the Sla- 
vonic tribes, pressing westward through Prussia, were checked 
by the valor of the Saxons , along the line of the Elbe , since 
only scattered bands of them were found beyond that river, at 
a later day. 

The first impulse to all these wonderful movements came, 
as we have seen, from the Huns. These people, as yet un- 
conquered, were so dreaded by the Emperors of the East, 
that their peace was purchased , like that of the Goths a 
hundred years before, by large annual payments. For fifty 
years, they seemed satisfied to rest in their new home, making 
occasional raids across the Danube, and gradually bringing 
under their sway the fragments of Germanic tribes already 
settled in Hungary or left behind by the Goths. In 428, At- 
tilla and his brother Bleda became kings of the Huns, but the 
latter's death, in 445, left Attila sole ruler. Hisname was already 
famous , far and wide, for his strength, energy and intelligence. 
His capital was established near Tokay, in Hungary, where he 

What was the condition of the Koman Empire? Where were now the 
original German tribes? Do we know anything of Germany at this time? 
What movements probably took place there? What occasioned all these 
changes? How long did the Huns remain quiet? Who became subject to 
them? Who were their kings? When did Attila become sole ruler? 



62 ATTILA PKEPAEES FOR WAR. [449 A. D. 

lived in a great castle of wood, surrounded with moats and pali- 
sades. He was a man of short stature, with broad head, neck and 
shoulders, and fierce, restless eyes. He scorned the luxury which 
was prevalent at the time, wore only plain woollen garments, 
and ate and drank from wooden dishes and cups. His personal 
power and influence were so great that the Huns looked upon 
him as a demigod, while all the neighboring Germanic tribes, 
including a large portion of the Ostrogoths, enlisted under his 
banner. 

After the Huns had invaded Thrace and compelled the 
Eastern Empire to pay a double tribute, the Emperor of the 
West, Valentinian III. (the grandson of Theodosius) sent an 
embassy to Attila, soliciting his friendship : the Emperor's sister, 
Honoria, ofifered him her hand. Both divisions of the Empire 
thus did him reverence, and he had little to fear from the force 
which either could bring against him ; but the Goths and Van- 
dals, now warlike and victorious races, were more formidable 
foes. Here, however, he was favored by the hostility between 
the aged Geiserich, king of the Vandals, and the young Theod- 
oric, king of the Visigoths. The former sent messages to 
Attila, inciting him to march into Gaul and overthrow Theod- 
oric, who was Geiserich's relative and rival. Soon afterwards, 
a new Emperor, at Constantinople, refused the additional 
tribute, and Valentinian HI. withheld the hand of his sister 
Honoria. 

Attila, now — towards the close of the year 449 — made 
preparations for a grand war of conquest. He already pos- 
sessed unbounded influence over the Huns, and supernatural 
signs of his coming career were soon supplied. A peasant dug 
up a jewelled sword, which, it was said , had long before been 
given to a race of kings by the god of war. This was brought 
to Attila, and thenceforth worn by him. He was called "The 
Scourge of God", and the people believed that wherever the 
hoofs of his horse had trodden no grass ever grew again. The 



Where was his capital? How did he live? What was his appearance and 
dress? What was the effect of his personal influence? What advantages did 
he obtain over the Roman Emperors? Who were his chief foes? What was 
Geiserich's counsel to him? What induced him to undertake a war of con- 
quest? When was it? What superstition was spread among the people? What 
was he called? 



451 A. D.] THE SIEGE OF ORLEANS. 63 

fear of his power, or the hope of plunder, drew large numbers 
of the German tribes to his side, and the army with which he 
set out for the conquest, first of Gaul and then of Europe, is 
estimated at from 500,000 to 700,000 warriors. \Yith this, 
he passed through the heart of Germany, much of which he 
had already made tributary, and reached the Rhine. Here 
Gunther, the king of the Burgundians, opposed him with a 
force of 10,000 men, and was speedily crushed. Even a por- 
tion of the Franks, who were then quarreling among them- 
selves, joined him, and now Gaul, divided between Franks, 
Romans and Visigoths, was open to his advance. 

The minister and counsellor of Valentinian III. was^etius, 
the son of a Gothic father and a Roman mother. As soon as 
Attila's design became known , he hastened to Gaul , collected 
the troops still in Roman service, and procured the alliance of 
Theodoric and the Visigoths. The Alans, under their king 
Sangipan, were also persuaded to unite their forces: the 
independent Celts, in Brittany, and a large portion of the 
Franks and Burgundians, all of whom were threatened by the 
invasion of the Huns, hastened to the side of ^etius, so that 
the army commanded by himself and Theodoric became nearly 
if not quite equal in numbers to that of Attila. The latter, 
by this time, had marched into the heart of Gaul, laying waste 
the country through which he passed , and meeting no resis- 
tance until he reached the walled and fortified city of Orleans. 
This was in the year 451. 

Orleans, besieged and hard pressed, was about to sur- 
render , when ^etius approached with his army. Attila was 
obliged to raise the siege at once, and retreat in order to 
select a better position for the impending battle. He finally 
halted on the broad plains of the province of Champagne, 
near the present city of Chalons, where his immense body of 
armed horsemen would have ample space to move, ^etius 
and Theodoric followed and pitched their camp opposite to 



What army did he set out with? Who first opposed him? What favored 
his march into Gaul? Who was Valentinian's minister? What were his first 
measures? What was his success? Who was his chief ally? When did 
Attila besiege Orleans? Why did he retreat? Where did he halt, and why? 
iiow were the two armies placed? 

4 



64 THE BATTLE NEAR CHA'EONS. [451 A. D. 

him, on the other side of a small hill which rose from the 
plain. That night, Attila ordered his priests to consult their 
pagan oracles, and ascertain the fate of the morrow's struggle. 
The answer was: "Death to the enemy's leader, destruction to 
the Huns ! " — but the hope of seeing ^etius fall prevailed on 
Attila to risk his own defeat. 

The next day witnessed one of the greatest battles of 
history, ^etius commanded the right, and Theodoric the left 
wing of their army, placing between them the Alans and other 
tribes, of whose fidelity they were not quite sure. Attila, 
however, took the centre with his Huns, and formed his wings 
of the Germans and Ostrogoths. The battle began at dawn, 
and raged through the whole day. Both armies endeavored 
to take and hold the hill between them , and the hundreds of 
thousands rolled back and forth, as the victory inclined to one 
side or the other. A brook which ran through the plain was 
swollen high by the blood of the fallen. At last Theodoric 
broke Attila's centre, but was slain in the attack. The 
Visigoths immediately lifted his son, Thorismond, on a shield, 
proclaimed him king, and renewed the fight. The Huns were 
driven back to the fortress of wagons where their wives, 
children and treasures were collected , when a terrible storm 
of rain and thunder put an end to the battle. Between 200,000 
and 300,000 dead lay upon the plain. 

All night the lamentations of the Hunnish women filled 
the air. Attila had an immense funeral pile constructed of 
saddles, whereon he meant to burn himself and his family , in 
case ^etius should renew the fight the next day. But the army 
of the latter was too exhausted to move, and the Huns were 
allowed to commence their retreat from Gaul. Enraged at his 
terrible defeat, Attila destroyed everything in his way, leaving 
a broad track of blood and ashes from Gaul through the heart 
of Germany, back to Hungary. 

By the following year, 452, Attila had collected another 
army, and now directed his march towards Italy. This new 



What was the oracle? How was the army of JEetius disposed? How At- 
tila's? Describe the battle. How many were slain? What was Attila's in- 
tention, afterwards? Why did he not carry it out? What was the character 
of his retreat? Where did he march next, and when? 



453 A. D.] 



ATTI*^. DESTROYS AQUILEIA. 



65 



invasion was so unexpected that the passes of the Alps were 
left undefended, and the Huns reached the rich and populous 
city of Aquileia, on the northern shore of the Adriatic, without 




ATTIIiA AND POPE LEO. 



meeting any opposition. After a siege of three montlxs , they 
took and razed it to the ground so completely that it w^as never 
rebuilt, and from that day to this only a few piles of shapeless 
stones remain to mark the spot where it stood. The 



in- 



What city did he destroy? 



66 GEISEEICH TAKES K(StfE. [455 A. D. 

habitants who escaped took refuge upon the low marshy is- 
lands, separated from the mainland by the lagunes, and there 
formed the settlement which, two or three hundred years later, 
became known to the world as Venice. 

Attiha marched onward to the Po , destroying everything 
in his way. Here he was met by a deputation, at the head of 
which was Leo, the Bishop (or Pope) of Home, sent by Yalen- 
tinian IIL Leo so worked upon the superstitious mind of the 
savage monarch, that the latter gave up his purpose of taking 
Rome, and returned to Hungary with his army, which was 
suffering from disease and want. The next year he died 
suddenly, in his wooden palace at Tokay. The tradition states 
that his body was inclosed in three coffins , of iron , silver and 
gold, and buried secretly, like that of Alaric, so that no man 
might know his resting-place. He had a great many wives, 
and left so many sons behind him, that their quarrels for the 
succession to the throne divided the Huns into numerous 
parties, and quite destroyed their power as a people. 

The alliance between ^etius and the Visigoths ceased im- 
mediately after the great battle. Valentinian HL, suspicious 
of the fame of ^etius, recalled him to Rome, the year after 
Attila's death, and assassinated him with his own hand. The 
treacherous Emperor was himself slain, shortly afterwards, by 
Maximus, who succeeded him, and forced his widow, the 
Empress Eudoxia, to accept him as her husband. Out of re- 
venge, Eudoxia sent a messenger to Geiserich, the old king of 
the Vandals, at Carthage, summoning him to Rome. The Van- 
dals had already built a large fleet and pillaged the shores of 
Sicily and other Mediterranean islands. In 455, Geiserich 
landed at the mouth of the Tiber with a powerful force, and 
marched upon Rome. The city was not strong enough to offer 
any resistance: it was taken, and during two weeks sur- 
rendered to such devastation and outrage that the word 
vandalism has ever since been used to express savage and 
wanton destruction. The churches were plundered of all their 



What city did he destroy? What became of those who escaped? Who 
met him? What was the consequence of the meeting? What is said of his 
death and burial? Why were the Huns divided, after his death? What was 
the fate of JEetius? What followed? What revenge did Eudoxia take? When 
did Ciciserich take Rome? How did the Vandals act? 



455 A. D.J EXPULSION OE THE HUNS. 67 

vessels and ornaments, the old Palace of the Csesars was laid 
waste, priceless works of art destroyed, and those of the in- 
habitants who escaped with their lives were left almost as 
beggars. 

When "the old king of the sea," as Geiserich was called, 
returned to Africa, he not only left Rome ruined, but the 
Western Empire practically overthrown. For seventeen years 
afterwards, Ricimer, a chief of the Suevi , who had been com- 
mander of the Roman auxiliaries in Gaul, was the real ruler 
of its crumbling fragments. He set up, set aside or slew five 
or six so-called Emperors, at his own will, and finally died in 
472, only four years before the boy, Romulus Augustulus, was 
compelled to throw off the purple and retire into obscurity as 
"the last Emperor of Rome." 

In 455, the year when Geiserich and his Vandals plundered 
Rome, the Germanic tribes along the Danube took advantage 
of the dissensions following Attila's death, and threw off their 
allegiance to the Huns. They all united under a king named 
Ardaric, gave battle, and w^ere so successful that the whole 
tribe of the Huns was forced to retreate eastward into 
Southern Russia. From this time they do not appear again 
in history, although it is probable that the Magyars, who 
came later into the same region from which they were driven, 
brought the remnants of the tribe with them. 

During the fourth and fifth centuries , the great historic 
achievements of the German race, as we have now traced them, 
were performed outside of the German territory. While from 
Thrace to the Atlantic Ocean, from the Scottish Highlands to 
Africa, the new nationalities overran the decayed Roman Em- 
pire, constantly changing their seats of power, we have no in- 
telligence of what was happening within Germany itself. Both 
branches of the Goths, the Vandals and a part of the Franks 
had become Christians, but the Alemanni, Saxons and Thii- 



What was the effect of this event? Who became the real ruler of Rome? 
For how long? Who was the last Emperor of the West? When did the Ger- 
man tribes rise against the Huns? Who was their leader? What did he 
achieve? What became of the Huns? Where were the great historic achieve- 
ments of the Germans? How far did their movements extend? 



68 THE GERMANS. [450 A. D. 

ringians were still heathens , although they had by this time 
adopted many of the arts of civilized life. They had no edu- 
cated class, corresponding to the Christian priesthood in the 
East, Italy and Gaul, and even in Britain; and thus no chro- 
nicle of their history has survived. 

Either before or immediately after Attila's invasion of 
Gaul, the Marcomanni crossed the Danube, and took possession 
of the plains between that river and the Alps. They were 
called the Boiarii, from their former home of four centuries in 
Bohemia, and from this name is derived the German Baiern, 
Bavaria. They kept possession of the new territory, adapted 
themselves to the forms of Roman civilization which they found 
there, and soon organized themselves into a small but distinct 
and tolerably independent nation. 

But the period of the Migration of the Races was not yet 
finished. The shadow of the old Roman Empire still remained, 
and stirred the ambition of each successful king, so that he 
was not content with the territory sufficient for the needs of 
his own people, but must also try to conquer his neighbors 
and extend his rule. The bases of the modern states of Eu- 
rope were already laid, but not securely enough for the build- 
ing thereof to be commenced. Two more important move- 
ments were yet to be made, before this bewildering period of 
change and struggle came to an end« 



What was the religious faith of the different tribes ? How was Bavaria 
settled? Whence comes the name? What influence did the Roman Empiro 
still exorcise? 



476.J ODOAKER, KING OF ITALY. 69 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE RISE AND FALL OF THE OSTROGOTHS. (472 570.) 

Odoaker conquers Italy. —Theodoric leads the Ostrogoths to Italy. — He 
defeats and slays Odoaker. — He hecomes King of Italy.— Chlodwig, King 
of the Franks, puts an End to the Roman Rule. — War between the Franks 
and Visigoths.— Character of Theodoric's Rule. — His Death.— His Mauso- 
leum. — End of the Burgundian Kingdom. — Plans of Justinian. — Belisarius 
destroys the Vandal Power in Africa. — He conquers Vitiges, and overruns 
Italy. — Narses defeats Totila and Teias. — End of the Ostrogoths. — Narses 
summons the Longohards.— They conquer Italy.— The Exarchy and Rome. 
—End of the Migrations of the Races. 

After the death of Ricimer, in 472, Italy, weakened by 
invasion and internal dissension, was an easy prey to the first 
strong hand which might claim possession. Such a hand was 
soon found in a chief named Odoaker (the name is sometimes 
incorrectly given as Odoacer)^ said to have been a native of 
the island of Riigen, in the Baltic. He commanded a large 
force, composed of the smaller German tribes from the banks 
of the Danube, who had thrown off the yoke of the Huns. 
Many of these troops had served the last half-dozen Roman 
Emperors whom Ricimer set up or threw down, and they now 
claimed one-third of the Italian territory for themselves and 
their families. When this was refused, Odoaker, at their head, 
took the boy Romulus Augustulus prisoner, banished him, and 
proclaimed himself king of Italy, in 476, making Ravenna his 
capital. 

The dynasty at Constantinople still called its dominion 
"The Roman Empire," and claimed authority over all the 
West. But it had not the means to make its claim acknow- 
ledged , and in this emergency the Emperor Zeno turned to 
Theodoric, the young king of the Ostrogoths, who had been 
brought up at his court, in Constantinople. He was the suc- 
cessor of three brothers, who, after the dispersion of the Huns, 
had united some of the smaller German tribes with the Ostro- 



What new chief came to Italy? Whom did he command? What did they 
claim? What was Odoaker's course? When did he hecome king? What did 
the Eastern Emperor determine? Who was Theodoric? 



70 THEODORIC DEFEATS ODOAKEE. [493. 

goths, and restored the former power and influence of the 
race. 

Theodoric (who must not be confounded with his namesake, 
the Visigoth king, who fell in conquering Attila) was a man 
of great natural ability, which had been well developed by his 
education in Constantinople. He accepted the appointment cf 
General and Governor from the Emperor, yet the preparations 
he made for the expedition to Italy show that he intended 
to remain and establish his own kingdom there. It was not 
a military march , but the migration of a people , which he 
headed. The Ostrogoths and their allies took with them their 
wives and children, their herds and household goods: they 
moved so slowly, up the Danube and across the AIjds, now 
halting to rest and recruit, now fighting a passage through 
some hostile tribe, that several years elapsed before they 
reached Italy. 

Odoaker had reigned fourteen years, with more justice and 
discretion than was common in those times, and was able to 
raise a large force, in 489, to meet the advance of Theodoric. 
After three severe battles had been fought, he was forced to 
take shelter within the strong walls of Ravenna; but he again 
sallied forth and attacked the Ostrogoths with such bravery 
that he came near defeating them. Finally, in 493, after a 
siege of three years, he capitulated , and was soon afterwards 
treacherously murdered, by order of Theodoric, at a banquet 
to which the latter had invited him. 

Having the power in his own hands, Theodoric now threw 
off his assumed subjection to the Eastern Empire, put on the 
Kbman purple, and proclaimed himself king. All Italy, in- 
cluding Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, fell at once into his hands ; 
and , having left a portion of the Ostrogoths behind him , on 
the Danube, he also claimed all the region between, in order 
to preserve a communication with them. He was soon so 
strongly settled in his new realm that he had nothing to fear 



What appointment was given to him? What preparations did he make? 
How did he march? When did he meet Odoaker? How many battles were 
fought, and what was the result? When did Odoaker surrender? What was 
his fate? What was Theodoric's next movement? What did he possess, and 
what claim? 



486.] CHLODWIG CONQUERS GAUL. 71 

from the Emperor Zeno and his successors. The latter did 
not venture to show any direct signs of hostility towards him, 
but remained quiet; while, on his part, beyond seizing a por- 
tion of Pannonia, he refrained from interfering with their rule 
in the East. 

In the West, however, the case was different. Five years 
before Theodoric's arrival in Italy, the last relic of Roman 
power disappeared for ever from Gaul. A general named 
Syagrius had succeeded to the command, after the murder of 
^etius, and had formed the central provinces into a Roman 
state, which was so completely cut off from all connection with 
the Empire that it became practically independent. The 
Franks, who now held all Northern Gaul and Belgium, from 
the Rhine to the Atlantic, with Paris as their capital, were by 
this time so strong and well organized, that their king, Chlod- 
wig, boldly challenged Syagrius to battle. The challenge was 
accepted: a battle was fought near Soissons, in the year 486, 
the Romans were cut to pieces, and the river Loire became the 
southern boundary of the Frank kingdom. The territory be- 
tween that river and the Pyrenees still belonged to the 
Visigoths. 

While Theodoric was engaged in giving peace, order, and 
a new prosperity to the war-worn and desolated lands of Italy, 
his Frank rival, Chlodwig, defeated the Alemanni, conquered 
the Celts of Brittany — then called Armorica — and thus greatly 
increased his power. We must return to him and the history 
of his dynasty in a later chapter, and will now only briefly 
mention those incidents of his reign which brought him into 
conflict with Theodoric. 

In the year 500, Chlodwig defeated the Burgundians and 
for a time rendered them tributary to him. He then turned 
to the Visigoths and made the fact of their being Arian 
Christians a pretext for declaring war against them. Their 
king was Alaric 11., who had married the daughter of Theod- 



"What was the policy of the Eastern Emperors towards him? "What was 
the^tate of things in Gaul? Who was the last Roman governcr there? What 
territory did the Franks hold? Who was their king? When did the Eoman 
rule cease, and how? What did the Visigoths hold? What were Chlodwig'a 
further successes? Whom did he next defeat? 



72 THE REIGN OF THEODOEIC. [510. 

oric. A battle was fought in 507 : the two kings met , and, 
fighting hand to hand, Alaric II. was slain by Chlodwig. The 
latter soon afterwards took and plundered Toulouse, the Visi- 
goth capital, and claimed the territory between the Loire and 
the Garonne. 

Theodoric, whose grandson Amalaric (son of Alaric II.) was 
now king of the Visigoths, immediately hastened to the relief 
of the latter. His military strength was probably too great 
for Chlodwig to resist, for there is no report of any great 
battle having been fought. Theodoric took possession of 
Provence, re-established the Loire as the southern boundary of 
the Franks, and secured the kingdom of his grandson. The 
capital of the Visigoths, however, was changed to Toledo, in 
Spain. The Emperor Anastasius, to keep up the pretence 
of retaining his power in Gaul, appointed Chlodwig Eoman 
Consul, and sent him a royal diadem and purple mantle. So 
much respect was still attached to the name of the Empire 
that Chlodwig accepted the title, and was solemnly invested by 
a Christian Bishop with the crown and mantle. In the year 
5 11 he died, having founded the kingdom of France. 

The power of Theodoric was not again assailed. As the 
king of the Ostrogoths , he ruled over Italy and the islands, 
and the lands between the Adriatic and the Danube; as the 
guardian of the young Amalaric, his sway extended over 
Southern France and all of Spain. He was peaceful, prudent 
and wise, and his reign, by contrast with the convulsions which 
preceded it, was called "a golden age" by his Italian subjects. 
Although he and his people were Germanic in blood and 
Arians in faith, while the Italians were Roman and Athanasian, 
he guarded the interests and subdued the prejudices of both, 
and the respect which his abilities inspired preserved peace 
between them. The murder of Odoaker is a lasting stain upon 
his memory: the execution of the philosopher, Boethius is an- 
other, scarcely less dark ; but, with the exception of these two 



Under what pretext did he make war on the Visigoths? What was the 
result of the war? What part did Theodoric take? What did he effect? 
Where was the capital transferred? What distinction was conferred on Chlod- 
wig, and by whom? When did he die? What was his great work ? How far 
did Theodoric's power extend? What was the character of his reign? 



526.] DEATH OE THEODOKIC. 73 

acts, his reign was marked by wisdom, justice and tolerance. 
The surname of 'The Great" was given to him by his cotem- 
poraries, not so much to distinguish him from the Theodoric 
of the Visigoths, as on account of his eminent qualities as a 
ruler. From the year 500 to 626, when he died, he was the 
most powerful and important monarch of the civilized world. 

During Theodoric's life, Ravenna was the capital of Italy: 
Rome had lost her ancient renown, but her Bishops, who were 
now called Popes, were the rulers of the Church of the West, 
and she thus became a religious capital. The ancient enmity 
of the Arians and Athanasians had only grown stronger by 
time, and Theodoric, although he became popular with the 
masses of the people, was always hated by the priests. When 
he died, a splendid mausoleum was built for his body, at Ra- 
venna, and still remains standing. It is a circular tower, resting 
on an arched base with ten sides, and surmounted by a dome, 
which is formed of a single stone, 36 feet in diameter and 4 
feet in thickness. The sarcophagus in which he was laid was 
afterwards broken open, by the order of the Pope of Rome, 
and his ashes were scattered to the winds, as those of a 
heretic. 

When Theodoric died, the enmities of race and sect, which 
he had suppressed with a strong hand , broke out afresh. He 
left behind him a grandson, Athalaric, only ten years old, to 
whose mother, Amalasunta, was entrusted the regency, during 
his minority. His other grandson, Amalaric, was king of the 
Visigoths, and sufficiently occupied in building up his power 
in Spain. In Italy, the hostility to Amalasunta's regency was 
chiefly religious; but the Eastern Emperor, on the one side, 
and the Franks on the other, were actuated by political con- 
siderations. The former, the last of the great Emperors, 
Justinian, determined to recover Italy for the Empire: the 
latter only waited an opportunity to get possession of the 
whole of Gaul. Amalasunta was persuaded to sign a treaty. 



What was he called, and why? "What position did he hold? How long? 
What was his capital? What was Korae? How was Theodoric regarded by 
the priests? Where was he buried? Describe his Mausoleum. What became 
of his remains? Who succeeded him? Who was his other grandson? What 
were the designs of Justinian? What those of the Franks? 



74 END OF THE VANDALS. [534. 

by wliich the territory of Provence was given back to the 
Burgundians. The latter were immediately assailed by the 
sons of Chlodwig, and in the year 534 the kingdom of Bur- 
gundy, after having stood for 125 years, ceased to exist. Not 
long afterwards the Visigoths were driven beyond the Pyre- 
nees, and the whole of what is now France and Belgium, with 
a part of Western Switzerland, was in the possession of the 
Franks. 

While these changes were taking place in the West, Jus- 
tinian had not been idle in the East. He was fortunate in 
having two great generals, Belisarius and Narses, who had 
already restored the lost prestige of the Imperial army. His 
first movement was to recover Northern Africa from the Van- 
dals, who had now been settled there for a hundred years, and 
began to consider themselves the inheritors of the Carthaginian 
power. Belisarius, with a fleet and a powerful army, was sent 
against them. Here, again, the difference of religious doctrine 
between the Yandals and the Romans whom they had subjected, 
made his task easy. The last Vandal king, Gelimer, was 
defeated and besieged in a fortress called Pappua. After the 
siege had lasted all winter, Belisarius sent an officer, Pharas, 
to demand surrender. Gelimer refused, but added: '^If you 
will do me a favor, Pharas , sent me a loaf of bread , a sponge 
and a harp." Pharas, astonished, asked the reason of this re- 
quest, and Gelimer answered: "I demand bread, because I have 
seen none since I have been besieged here; a sponge, to cool 
my eyes which are weary with weeping, and a harp, to sing 
the story of my misfortunes." Soon afterwards he surrendered, 
and in 534 all Northern Africa was restored to Justinian. 
The Vandals disappeared from history, as a race, but some of 
their descendants, with light hair, blue eyes and fair skins, 
still live among the valleys of the Atlas Mountains, where they 
are called Berbers, and keep themselves distinct from the Arab 
population. 



What next happened? When did the kingdom of Burgundy cease to exist? 
What were the next conquests of the Pranks? Who were Justinian's generals? 
What was his first measure? What success had Belisarius? Who was the 
last Vandal king? What story is related of him? When did he surrender? 
What became of the Vandals? Who are their descendants? 



552.] END OF THE OSTROGOTHS. 75 

Amalasunta , in the mean time , had been murdered by a 
relative whom she had chosen to assist her in the government. 
This gave Justinian a pretext for interfering, and Belisarius 
was next sent with his army to Italy. The Ostrogoths chose 
a new king, Vitiges, and the struggle which followed was long 
and desperate. Rome and Milan were taken and ravaged: in 
the latter city 300,000 persons are said to have been slaugh- 
tered. Belisarius finally obtained possession of Ravenna , the 
Gothic capital, took Yitiges prisoner and sent him to Con- 
stantinople. The Goths immediately elected another king, To- 
tila, who carried on the struggle for eleven years longer. 
Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians and even Alemanni, whose 
alliance was sought by both sides, flocked to Italy in the hope 
of securing booty, and laid waste the regions which Belisarius 
\ and Totila had spared. 

\ When Belisarius was recalled to Constantinople, Narses 
tov>k his place, and continued the war with the diminishing 
remnant of the Ostrogoths. Finally in the year 552, in a great 
battle among the Apennines, Totila was slain, and the struggle 
seemed to be at an end. But the Ostrogoths proclaimed the 
young prince Teias as their king, and marched southward un- 
der his leadership, to make a last fight for their existence as 
a nation. Narses followed, and not far from Cumse, on a 
mountain opposite Vesuvius, he cut off their communication 
with the sea, and forced them to retreat to a higher position, 
where there - was neither water for themselves nor food for 
their animals. Then they took the bridles off their horses and 
turned them loose, formed themselves into a solid square of 
men, with Teias at their head, and for two whole days fought 
with the valor and the desperation of men who know that 
their cause is lost, but nevertheless will not yield. Although 
Teias was slain, they still stood; and on the third morning 
Narses allowed the survivors, about 1000 in number, to march 
away, with the promise that they would leave Italy. 



What was Justinian's pretext for interfering in Italy? Who Tvas king of 
the Ostrogoths? What were the events of the war? What success had Beli- 
sarius? Who was the next king of the Ostrogoths? What tribes flocked to 
Italy, and why? Who succeeded Belisarius? When and where was the great 
battle fought , and with what result? "^here did the Ostrogoths retreat? 
Describe their last fight. 



76 NAESES SUMMONS THE LONGOBAEDS. [565. 

Thus gloriously came to an end, after enduring sixty years, 
the Gothic power in Italy, and thus, like a meteor, brightest 
before it is quenched , the Gothic name fades from history. 
The Visigoths retained their supremacy in Spain until 711, 
when Roderick, their last king, was slain by the Saracens, but 
the Ostrogoths, after this campaign of Narses, are never heard 
of again as a people. Between Hermann and Charlemagne, 
there is no leader so great as Theodoric, but his empire died 
with him. He became the hero of the earliest German songs; 
his name and character were celebrated among tribes who had 
forgotten his history, and his tomb is one of the few monu- 
ments left to us from those ages of battle, migration and 
change. The Ostrogoths were scattered and their traces lost. 
Some, no doubt, remained in Italy, and became mixed with 
the native population; others joined the people which were 
nearest to them in blood and habits; and some took refuge 
among the fastnesses of the Alps. It is supposed that the 
Tyrolese, for instance, may be among their descendants. 

The apparent success of Justinian in bringing Italy again 
under the sway of the Eastern Empire was also only a flash, 
before its final extinction. The Ostrogoths were avenged by 
one of their kindred races. Narses remained in Ravenna as 
vicegerent of the Empire : his government was stern and harsh, 
but he restored order to the country,* and his authority became 
so great as to excite the jealousy of Justinian. After the 
latter's death, in 566, it became evident that a plot was formed 
at Constantinople to treat Narses as his great cotemporary, 
Belisarius, had been treated. He determined to resist, and, in 
order to make his position stronger, summoned the Longo- 
bards (Long-Beards) to his aid. 

This tribe, in the time of Csesar, occupied a part of 
Northern Germany, near the mouth of the Elbe. About the 
end of the fourth century we find them on the north bank of 
the Danube, between Bohemia and Hungary. The history of 
their wanderings during the intervening period is unknown. 



What and when was the end of the Visigoths? How is Theodoric cele- 
brated? What became of the Ostrogoths? Who are supposed to be among 
their descendants? What was the character of Narses, as a ruler? What plot 
was formed against him? Whom did he call to his aid? Where were tho 
liongobards then settled? 



568.] ALBOIN, KINQ OF ITALY. 77 

During the reign of Theodoric tliey overcame their Germanic 
neighbors, the Heruli, to whom they had been partially sub- 
ject: then followed a fierce struggle with the Gepidse, another 
Germanic tribe, which terminated in the year 560 with the 
defeat and destruction of the latter. Their king, Kunimund, 
fell by the hand of Alboin , king of the Longobards , who had 
a drinking-cup made of his skull. The Longobards, though 
victorious , found themselves surrounded by new neighbors, 
who were much worse than the old. The Avars, who are 
supposed to have been a branch of the Huns, pressed and 
harrassed them on the East ; the Sla.vonic tribes of the north 
descended into Bohemia; and they found themselves alone be- 
tween races who were savages in comparison with their own. 

The invitation of Narses was followed by a movement 
similar to that of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric. Alboin 
marched with all his people, their herds and household goods. 
The passes of the Alps were purposely left undefended at their 
approach, and in 568, accompanied by the fragments of many 
other Germanic tribes who gave up their homes on the Danube, 
they entered Italy and took immediate possession of all the 
northern provinces. The city of Pa via, which was strongly 
fortified, held out against them for four years, and then, on 
account of its strength and gallant resistance , was chosen by 
Alboin for his capital. 

Italy then became the kingdom of the Longobards, and the 
permanent home of their race , whose name still exists in the 
province of Lombardy. Only Ravenna, Naples and Genoa 
were still held by the Eastern Emperors, constituting what 
was called the Exarchy. Rome was also nominally subject to 
Constantinople, although the Popes were beginning to assume 
the government of the city. The young republic of Venice, 
already organized, was safe on its islands in the Adriatic. 

The Migrations of the Races, which were really commenced 
by the Goths when they moved from the Baltic to the Black 



"With what tribes had they fought? When? With what result? Who was 
their king? How were they situated? How did they march to Italy? When 
did they arrive, and what success had they? What city became their capital, 
and why? What name have they left in Italy? What was the Exarchy? 
What was the position of Rome? of Venice? 



78 SPEEAD OF THE GERMANIC RACES. [570. 

Sea, but which first became a part of our history in the year 
375, terminated with the settlement of the Longobards in 
Italy. They therefore occupied two centuries, and form a 
grand and stirring period of transition between the Roman 
Empire and the Europe of the Middle Ages. With the exception 
of the invasion of the Huns, and the slow and rather unevent- 
ful encroachment of the Slavonic race, these great movements 
were carried out by the kindred tribes who inhabited the 
forests of '^Germania Magna," in the time of Caesar. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

EUROPE, AT THE END OF THE MIGRATION OF THE RACES. 

(570.) 

Extension of the German Races in A. d. 570.— The Longohards. — The Franks. 
—The Visigoths.— The Saxons in Britain. — The Tribes on German Soil. 
— The Eastern Empire. — Relation of the Conquerors to the Conquered Races. 
Influence of Roman Civilization.— The Priesthood. — Obliteration of German 
Origin. — Religion. — The Monarchical Element in Government. — The No- 
bility. -^The Cities. — Slavery. — Laws in regard to Crime. — Privileges of the 
Church. — The Transition Period. 

Thus far, we have been following the history of the Ger- 
manic races, in their conflict with Rome, until their complete 
and final triumph at the end of six hundred years after they 
first met Julius Caesar. Within the limits of Germany itself, 
there was, as we have seen, no united nationality. Even the 
consolidation of the smaller tribes under the name of Goths, 
Franks, Saxons and Alemanni, during the third century, was 
only the beginning of a new political development which was 
not continued upon German soil. With the exception of Den- 
mark, Sweden, Russia, Ireland, Wales, the Scottish Highlands, 
and the Byzantine territory in Turkey, Greece and Italy, all 



When do the Migrations of the Races begin and end? "What place do they 
occupy in history? By what tribes were they principally carried out? 

How long did the conflict between the Germans and the Roman Empire 
last? 



80 THE FRANKS, VISIGOTHS AND SAXONS. [570. 

Euroi^e was under Germanic rule at the end of the Migration 
of the Races, in the year 570. 

The Longobards, after the death of Alboin and his suc- 
cessor, Kleph, prospered greatly under the wise rule of Queen 
Theodolind, daughter of king Garibald of Bavaria, and wife of 
Kleph's son, Authari. She persuaded them to become Chris- 
tians ; and they then gave up their nomadic habits , scattered 
themselves over the country, learned agriculture and the 
mechanic arts, and gradually became amalgamated with the 
native Romans. Their descendants form a large portion of the 
population of Northern Italy, at this day. 

The Franks, at this time, were firmly established in Gaul, 
under the dynasty founded by Chlodwig. They owned nearly 
all the territory west of the Rhine, part of Western Switzer- 
land and the valley of the Rhone, to the Mediterranean. Only 
a small strip of territory on the east, between the Pyrenees 
and the upper waters of the Garonne, still belonged to the 
Visigoths. The kingdom of Burgundy, after an existence of 
125 years, became absorbed in that of the Franks, in 534. 

After the death of Theodoric, the connection of the Visi- 
goths with the other German races ceased. They conquered 
the Suevi, driving them into the mountains of Galicia, subdued 
the Alans in Portugal, and during a reign of two centuries 
more impressed their traces indelibly upon the Spanish people. 
Their history, from this time on, belongs to Spain. Their near 
relations, the Vandals, as we have already seen, had ceased to 
exist. Like the Ostrogoths, they were never named again as 
a separate people. 

The Saxons had made themselves such thorough masters 
of England and the lowlands of Scotland, that the native 
Celto-Roman population was driven into Wales and Cornwall. 
The latter had become Christians under the Empire, and they 
looked with horror upon the paganism of the Saxons. During 
the early part of the sixth century, they made a bold but brief 
effort to expel the invaders, under the lead of the half-fabulous 



How far did the German rule extend, in 570? Who became queen of the 
Longobards? What changes took place under her rule? Who are their des- 
cendants? What was the territory of the Franks, at this time? What was 
done by the Visigoths? What was the relation of the Saxons and Britons? 



570.] LOCATION OF OTHEB TRIBES. 81 

king Arthur (of the Round Table), who is supposed to have 
died about the year 537. The Saxons, however, not only 
triumphed, but planted their language, laws and character so 
firmly upon English soil, that the England of the later cen- 
turies grew from the basis they laid , and the name of Anglo- 
Saxon has become the designation of the English race, all over 
the world. 

Along the northern coast of Germany , the Frisii and the 
Saxons who remained behind had formed two kingdoms and 
asserted a fierce independence. The territory of the latter 
extended to the Hartz mountains, where it met that of the 
Thiiringians, who still held Central Germany, southward to 
the Danube. Beyond that river, the new nation of the Ba- 
varians was permanently settled, and had already risen to such 
importance that Theodolind, the daughter of its king, Gari- 
bald, was selected for his queen by the Longobard king, 
Authari. 

East of the Elbe, through Prussia, nearly the whole 
country was occupied by various Slavonic tribes. One of these, 
the Czechs, had taken possession of Bohemia, where they soon 
afterwards established an independent kingdom. Beyond 
them, the Avars occupied Hungary, now and then making in- 
vasions into German territory, or even to the borders of Italy. 
Denmark and Sweden , owing to their remoteness from the 
great theatre of action, were scarcely affected by the political 
changes we have described. 

Finally, the Alemanni, though defeated and held back by 
the Franks, maintained their independence in the southwestern 
part of Germany and in Eastern Switzerland, where their 
descendants are living at this day. Each of all these new 
nationalities included remnants of the smaller original tribes, 
which had lost their independence in the general struggle, and 
which soon became more or less mixed (except in England) 
with the former inhabitants of the conquered soil. 



Who attempted to expel the Saxons, and when? What did the Saxons 
accomplish, in England? What tribes remained on the northern coast of 
Germany? What territory was held by the Thiiringians? Who were estab- 
lished south of them? Who occupied Prussia and Bohemia? Who Hungary? 
How were Denmark and Sweden situated? Where were the Alemanni? What 
became of the smaller tribes? 



82 INTERCOURSE WITH THE ROMANS. [570. 

The Eastern Empire was now too weak and corrupt to 
venture another conflict with these stronger Germanic races, 
whose civilization was no longer very far behind its own. 
Moreover, witliin sixty years after the Migration came to an 
end, a new foe arose in the East. The successors of Mahomet 
began that struggle wliich tore Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor 
from Christian hands, and which only ceased when, in 1453, 
the crescent floated from the towers of Constantinople. 

Nearly all Europe was thus portioned among men of Ger- 
man blood, very few of whom ever again migrated from the 
soil whereon they were now settled. It was their custom to 
demand one-third — in some few instances, two-thirds — of the 
conquered territory for their own people. In this manner, 
Frank and Gaul, Longobard and Roman, Visigoth and Spa- 
niard, found themselves side by side, and reciprocally in- 
fluenced each other's speech and habits of life. It must not 
be supposed, however, that the new nations lost their former 
character, and took on that of the Germanic conquerors. Al- 
most the reverse of this took place. It must be remembered 
that the Gauls, for instance, far outnumbered the Franks ; that 
each conquest was achieved by a few hundred thousand men, 
all of them warriors , while each of the original Koman pro- 
vinces had several millions of inhabitants. There must have 
been at least ten of the ruled, to one of the ruling race. 

The latter, moreover, were greatly inferior to the former 
in all the arts of civilization. In the homes, the dress and 
ornaments, the social intercourse, and all the minor features of 
life, they found their new neighbors above them, and they 
were quick to learn the use of unaccustomed comfoi'ts or 
lujsuries. All the cities and small towns were Koman in their 
architecture, in their municipal organization, and in the cha- 
racter of their trade and intercourse; and the conquerors 
found it easier to accept tins old -established order than to 
change it. 



What -vras the condition of the Eastern Empire? Wliat new power arose 
in the East? What did the German conquerors demand? What was the re- 
sult? How were the people of the new nations affected? Wliat was the pro- 
portion of Germans to the natives? In what where the Gemmns inferior? 
What was the character of the cities and towns ? 



570.] SPEEAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 83 

Another circumstance contributed to Latinize the German 
races outside of Germany. After the invention of a Gotliic 
alphabet by Bishop Ul£la, and his translation of tlie Bible, 
we hear no more of a written German language until the 
eighth century. There was at least none which was accessible 
to the people, and the Latin continued to be the language of 
government and religion. The priests were nearly all Ro- 
mans, and their interest was to prevent the use of written 
Germa.nic tongues. Such learning as remained to the world 
was of course only to be acquired through a knowledge of 
Latin and Greek. 

All the influences which surrounded the conquering races 
tended, therefore, to eradicate or change their original German 
characteristics. After a few centuries, their descendants, in 
almost every instance, lost sight of their origin, and even 
looked with contempt upon rival people of the same blood. 
The Franlcs and Burgundians of the present day speak of 
themselves as "the Latin race" : the blond and blue- eyed Lom- 
bards of Northern Italy, not long since , hated *'the Germans" 
as the Christian of the Middle Ages hated the Jew; and the 
full-blooded English or American Saxon often considers the 
German as a foreigner with whom he has nothing in common. 

By the year 570, all the races outside of Germany, except 
the Saxons and Angles in Britain, had accepted Christianity. 
Within Germany, although the Christian missionaries were at 
work among the Alemanni, the Bavarians, and along the Rhine, 
the great body of the people still held to their old pagan 
worship. The influence of the true faith was no doubt weakened 
by the bitter enmity which still existed between the Athanasian 
and Arian sects, although the latter ceased to be powerful after 
the downfall of the Ostrogoths. But the Christianity which 
prevailed among the Franks, Burgundians and Longobards 
was not pure or intelligent enough to save them from the vices 
which the Roman 'Empire -left behind it. Many of their kings 



"WTiat other circamatance favored the Latin element? What was the priest- 
hood ? What were the written languages? What change took place among 
the descendants? Where is the German origin forgotten? What races had 
accepted Christianity in 570? What stiU remained Pagan? What weakened 
the influence of Christianity? 



84 FOEMS OF GOVERNMENT. [570. 

and nobles were polyganiists , and the early history of their 
dynasties is a chronicle of falsehood, cruelty and murder. 

In each of the races , the primitive habit of electing chiefs 
by the people had long since given way to an hereditary mon- 
archy, but in other respects their political organization remained 
much the same. The Franks introduced into Gaul the old Ger- 
man division of the land into provinces, hundreds and com- 
munities, but the king now claimed the right of appointing a 
Count for the first, a Ccntenarhis^ or centurion, for the second, 
and an elder, or head-man, for the third. The people still 
held their public assemblies , and settled their local matters ; 
they were all equal before the law, and the free men paid no 
taxes. The right of declaring war, making peace, and other 
questions of national importance, were decided by a general 
assembly of the people, at which the king presided. The po- 
litical system was therefore more republican than monarchical, 
but it gradually lost the former character as the power of the 
kini^s increased. 

The nobles had no fixed place and no special rights during 
the migrations of the tribes. Among the Franks they were 
partly formed out of the civil officers, and soon included both 
Romans and Gauls among their number. In Germany their 
hereditary succession was already secured, and they maintained 
their ascendancy over the common people by keeping pace 
with the knowledge and the arts of those times, while the 
latter remained, for the most part, in a state of ignorance. 

The cities, inhabited by Romans and Romanized Gauls, 
retained their old system of government, but paid a tax or 
tribute. Those portion of the other Germanic races which had 
become subject to the Franks were also allowed to keep their 
own peculiar laws and forms of local government , which were 
now, for the first time, recorded in the Latin language. They 
were obliged to furnish a certain number of men capable of 



What were the habits of the kings and nobles? What was their political 
organization? How were the people divided? What officials were appointed? 
What rights had the people? What were the powers of the general assembly? 
What position had the nobles? How were they constituted, among the Franks? 
How did they maintain their influence in Germany? What rights had the 
cities? 



570.] PENALTIES FOR CRIME. 85 

bearing arms , but it does not appear that they paid any tri- 
bute to tlie Franks. 

Slavery still existed, and in the two forms of it which we 
find among the ancient Germans, — chattels who were bought 
and sold, and dependents who were bound to give labor or 
tribute in return for the protection of a freeman. The Ro- 
mans in Gaul were placed upon the latter footing by the 
Franks. The children born of marriages between them and 
the free took the lower and not the higher position, — that is, 
they were dependents. 

The laws in regard to crime were very rigid and severe, 
but not bloody. The body of the free man, like his life, was 
considered inviolate, so there was no corporeal punishment, 
and death was only inflicted in a few extreme cases. The 
worst crimes could be atoned for by the sacrifice of money or 
property. For murder the penalty was 200 shillings (at that 
time the value of 100 oxen), two-thirds of which were given 
to the family of the murdered person , while one-tliird was 
divided between the judge and the State. This penalty was 
increased threefold for the murder of a Count or a soldier in 
the field, and more than fourfold for that of a Bishop. In some 
of the codes the payment was fixed even for the murder of a 
Duke or King. The slaying of a dependent or a Roman only 
cost half as much as that of a free Frank , while a slave was 
only valued at 35 shillings, or seventeen and a half oxen: the 
theft of a falcon trained for hunting, or a stallion, cost 10 
shillings more. 

Slander, insult and false-witness were punished in the same 
way. If any one falsely accused another of murder he was 
condemned to pay the injured person the penalty fixed for the 
crime of murder , and the same rule was applied to all minor 
accusations. The charge of witchcraft, if not proved according 
to the superstitious ideas of the people, was followed by the 



How were other Germanic races ruled by the Franks? V^hat forms of 
slavery existed? How were the Romans in Gaul considered? What were the 
children, horn of mixed marriages? What was the punishment for crime? 
What was the fine for murder, and how was it divided? For whom was it 
changed, and how? What was the fine for a dependent, a slave, a falcon? 
How was a false accusation punished? 



86 PEIVILEGES OF THE CHURCH. [570. 

penalty of 180 shillings. Whoever called another a liare^ was 
fined 6 shillings ; but if he called him a fox^ the fine was only 
3 shillings. 

As the Germanic races became Christian, the power and 
privileges of the priesthood were manifested in the changes 
made in these laws. Not only was it enacted that the theft of 
property belonging to the Church must be paid back nine-fold, 
but the slaves of the priests were valued at double the amount 
fixed for the slaves of laymen. The Churches became sacred, 
and no criminal could be seized at the foot of the altar. Those 
who neglected to attend worship on the Sabbath, three times 
in succession, were punished by the loss of one-third of their 
property. If this neglect was repeated a second time , they 
were made slaves, and could be sold as such by the Church. 

The laws of the still pagan Thiiringians and Saxons, in 
Germany, did not differ materially from those of the Christian 
Franks. Justice was administered in assemblies of the people, 
and, in order to secure the largest expression of the public 
wiU, a heavy fine was imposed for the failure to attend. The 
latter feature is still retained, in some of the old Cantons of 
Switzerland. In Thiiringia and Saxony, however, the nobles 
had become a privileged class, recognized by the laws, and 
thus was laid the foundation for the feudal system of the 
Middle Ages. 

The transition was now complete. Although the art, taste 
and refinement of the Roman Empire were lost , its civilizing 
influence in law and civil organization survived, and slowly 
subdued the Germanic races which inherited its territory. But 
many characteristics of their early barbarism still clung to the 
latter, and a long period elapsed before we can properly call 
them a civilized people. 



What was the penalty for a charge of -witchcraft? For calling names? 
What was the effect of the Church on these laws? How were the priests 
favored? How was worship enforced? What were th^J^s of the Pagan 
tribes? How was justice administered, and attendance secured? Where were 
the nobles a privileged class? What influence of the Koman Empire re- 
mained ? 



500.] THE MEEOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 87 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE KINGDOM OF THE FEANKS. 

(486—638.) 

Chlodwig, the Founder of the Meroringian Dynasty.— His Conversion to 
Christianity. — His Successors. — Theuderich's Conquest of Thiiringia. — 
Union of the Eastern Franks. — Austria (or Austrasia) and Neustria. — 
Crimes of the Merovingian Kings. — Clotar and his Sons. — Sigbert's Suc- 
cesses. — His wife, Brunhilde.— Sigbert's Death.— Quarrel between Brun- 
hilde and Fredegunde. — Clotar II. — Brunhilde and her Grandsons. — Her 
Defeat and Death. — Clotar II.'s Eeign.— King Dagobert. — The Nobles and 
the Church.— War with the Thiiringians. — Picture of the Merovingian Line. 
— A New Power. 

The history of Germany, from the middle of the sixth to 
the middle of the ninth century, is that of France also. After 
having conducted them to their new homes , we take leave of 
the Anglo-Saxons, the Visigoths and the Longobards, and re- 
turn to the Frank dynasty founded by Chlodwig, about the 
year 500, when the smaller kings and chieftains of his race ac- 
cepted him as their ruler. In the histories of France, even 
those written in English, he is called '*Clovis", but we prefer 
to give him his original Frank name. He w^as the grand- 
son of a petty king, whose name was Merovich, whence he and 
his successors are called, in history, the Merovingian dynasty. 
He appears to have been a born conqueror, neither very just 
nor very wise in his actions, but brave, determined and ready 
to use any means, good or bad, in order to attain his end. 

Chlodwig extinguished the last remnant of Roman rule in 
Gaul, in the year 486, as we have related in Chapter VH. He 
was then only 20 years old, having succeeded to the throne at 
the age of 15. Shortly afterwards he married the daughter of 
one of the Burgundian kings. She was a Christian, and en- 
deavored, but for many years without effect, to induce him to 
give up his pagan faith. Finally, in a war with the Alemanni, 
in 496, he promised to become a Christian, provided the God 



What history is connected with that of Germany? For how long? By 
whom was the Frank dynasty founded? Wlien? How is Chlodwig named 
in France? Who was he? What is his dynasty called? What was hia 
character? When did he conquer the Komans, and at what age? Whom did 
he marry? What did she try to do? 

5 



88 chlodwig's successoes. [511. 

of tlie Christians worJd give him victory. The decisive battle 
was long and bloody, but it ended in the complete rout of the 
Alemanni, and after-wards all of them who were living to the 
west of the Rhine became tributary to the Franks. 

Chlodwig and 3,000 of his followers were soon afterwards 
baptized in the Cathedral at Kheims, by the bishop Remigius. 
When the king advanced to the baptismal font, the bishop 
said to liim: "Bow thy head, Sicambrian! — worship what thau 
hast persecuted, persecute what thou hast worshipped!" 
Altliough nearly all the German Christians at this time were 
Arians, Chlodwig selected the Athanasian faith of Rome, and 
thereby secured the support of the Roman priesthood in France, 
w^hich was of great service to him in his ambitious designs. 
This difference of faith also gave him a pretext to march 
against the Burgundians in 500, and the Visigoths in 507 : 
both wars were considered holy by the Cliurch. 

His conquest of the Visigoths was prevented, as we have 
seen, by the interposition of Theodoric. He then devot<}d his 
remaining years to the complete suppression of aJl the 
minor Frank kings, and was so successful that when he died, 
in 511, all the race , to the west of the Rhine , was united 
under his single sway. He was succeeded by four sons, of 
whom the eldest, Theuderich , reigned in Paris : the others 
chose Metz, Orleans and Soissons for their capitals. Theu- 
derich was a man of so much energy and prudence that 
he was able to control his brothers, and unite the four govern- 
ments in such a way that the kingdom was saved from dis- 
memberment. 

The mother of Chlodwig was a runaway queen of Thiiringia, 
whose son, Hermanfried, now ruled over that kingdom, after 
having deposed his two brothers. The relationship gave Theu- 
derich a ground for interfering, and the result was a war 
between the Franks and the Thiiringians. Theuderich collected 
a large army, marched into Germany in 530, procured tJie ser- 
vices of 9,000 Saxons as allies, and met the Thiiringians on 

What promise did he make? "What was the result of the battle? Where 
was Chlodwig baptized, and by whom? What did the Bishop say to liim? 
What faith did he profess? To what purpose did he turn it? What prevented 
his conquest of the Visigoths? When did Chlodwig die? What did he ac- 
complish? Who succeeded him? What were their capitals? What was Theu- 
dorich's character? Why did he interfere in the affairs of the TliiiriDgians? 



530.] AUSTKIA AND NEUSTBIA. 89 

the river Unstrut, not far from where the city of Halle now 
stands. Hermanfried was taken prisoner, carried to France, 
and treacherously thrown from a tower, after receiving great 
professions of friendship from his nephew, Theuderich. His 
family fled to Italy, and the kingdom of Thiiringia, embracing 
nearly all Central Germany was added to that of the Franks. 
The northern part, however, was given to the Saxons as a re- 
ward for their assistance. 

Four years afterwards the brothers of Theuderich con- 
quered the kingdom of Burgundy, and annexed it to their 
territory. About the same time, the Franks living eastward 
of the Rhine entered into a union with their more powerful 
brethren. Since both the Alemanni and the Bavarians were 
already tributary to the latter, the dominion of the united Franks 
now extended from the Atlantic nearly to the river Elbe, and 
from the mouth of the Rhine to the Mediterranean, with Fries- 
land and the kingdom of the Saxons between it and the North 
Sea. To all lying east of the Rhine, the name of Austria (East- 
kingdom) or Austrasia was given, while Neustria (New- 
kingdom) w^as applied to all west of the Rhine. These designa- 
tions were used in the historical chronicles, for some centuries 
afterwards. 

While Theuderich lived, his brothers observed a tolerably 
peaceful conduct towards one another, but his death was 
followed by a season of war and murder. History gives us no 
record of another dynasty so steeped in crime as that of the 
Merovingians: within the compass of a few years we find a 
father murdering his son, a brother his brother and a wife her 
husband. We can only account for the fact that the whole 
land was not constantly convulsed by civil war, by supposing 
that the people retained enough of ]30wer, in their national 
assemblies, to refuse taking part in the fratricidal quarrels. 
It is not necessary, therefore, to recount all the details of the 



"When did he march into Germany? Where was the battle, and how did 
it terminate? What happened afterwards? Who conquered Burgundy, and 
when? What union took place? What, now, was the Frank territory? What 
names were given to the two divisions? What followed Theuderich's doatli? 
What was the character of the Merovingian kings ? Why were there not 
continual civil wars? 



90 KING SIGBERT. [5G5. 

bloody family history. Their effect upon the people must have 
been in the highest degree demoralizing, yet the latter pos- 
sessed enough of prudence — or perhaps of a clannish spirit, in 
the midst of a much larger Roman and Gallic population — to 
hold the Frank kingdom together, while its rulers were doing 
their best to split it to pieces. 

The result of all the quarreling and murdering was, that 
in 558 Clotar, the youngest son of Chlodwig, became the sole 
monarch. After 47 years of divided rule, the kingly power 
was again in a single hand, and there seemed to be a chance 
for peace and progress. But Clotar died within three years, 
and, like his father, left four sons to divide his power. The 
first thing they did was to fight; then, being perhaps rather 
equally matched , they agreed to portion the kingdom. Cha- 
ribert reigned in Paris, Guntram in Orleans, Chilperic in Sois- 
sons, and Sigbert in Metz. The boundaries between their ter- 
ritories are uncertain ; we only know that all of "Austria," or 
Germany east of the Rhine, fell to Sigbert's share. 

About this time the Avars, coming from Hungary, had in- 
vaded Thiiringia, and were inciting the people to rebellion 
against the Franks. Sigbert immediately marched against 
them, drove them back, and established his authority over the 
Thiiringians. On returning home he found that his brother 
Chilperic had taken possession of his capital and many smaller 
towns. Chilperic was forced to retreat, lost his own kingdom 
in turn, and only received it again through the generosity of 
Sigbert, — the first and only instance of such a virtue, in the 
Merovingian line of kings. Sigbert seems to have inherited 
the abilities, without the vices, of his grandfather Chlodwig. 
When the Avars made a second invasion into Germany, he 
was not only defeated but taken prisoner by them. Nevertheless, 
he immediately acquired such influence over their Khan, or 
chieftain, that he persuaded the latter to set him free, to make 
a treaty of peace and friendship, and to return with his Avars 
to Plungary. 

In the year 568 Charibert died in Paris, leaving no heirs. 

"Who became sole monarch, and when? How long did he reign? Who 
succeeded? What were their capitals? Who governed Germany? What new 
invasion took place? Who repelled it? What followed, after his return 
home? What happened during the second invasion of the Avars? 



570.] FAMILY WARS IN FEANCE. 91 

A new strife instantly broke out among the three remaining 
brothers; but it was for a time suspended, owing to the ap- 
proach of a common danger. The Longobards, now masters 
of Northern Italy, crossed the Alps and began to overrun 
Switzerland, which the Franks possessed, through their vic- 
tories over the Burgundians and the Alemanni. Sigbert and 
Guntram united their forces, and repelled the invasion with 
much slaughter. 

Then broke out in France a series of family wars, darker 
and bloodier than any which had gone before. The strife be- 
tween the sons of Clotar and their children and grandchildren 
desolated France for forty years, and became all the more ter- 
rible because the women of the family entered into it with the 
men. All these Christian kings, like their father, were poly- 
gamists: each had several wives; yet they are described by 
the priestly chroniclers of their times as men who went about 
doing good, and whose lives were "acceptable to God'M Sig- 
bert was the only exception: he had but one wife, Brunhilde, 
the daughter of a king of the Visigoths , a stately, handsome, 
intelligent w^oman, but proud and ambitious. 

Either the power and popularity , or the rich marriage- 
portion, which Sigbert acquired with Brunhilde, induced his 
brother, Chilperic, to ask the hand of her sister, the Princess 
Galsunta of Spain. It was granted to him on condition that 
he would put away all his wives and live with her alone. He 
accepted the condition, and was married to Galsunta. One of 
the women sent away was Fredegunde, who soon found means 
to recover her former influence over Chilperic's mind. It was 
not long before Galsunta was found dead in her bed, and 
within a week Fredegunde, the murderess, became queen in 
her stead. Brunhilde called upon Sigbert to revenge her sister's 
death, and then began that terrible history of crime and 
hatred, which was celebrated, centuries afterwards, in the 
famous Nibelungenlied, or Lay of the Nibelungs.* 

When did Charibert die? What happened then? What invasion followed, 
and how was it repelled? What strife now began? How long did it last? 
What were the Merovingian kings? How are they described by the priests? 
Who was Sigbert's wife? Whom did Chilperic desire in marriage? On what 
condition was the request granted? What happened afterwards? To what 
did these events give rise? 

*See Chapter XIX. 



92 THE KIVAL QUEENS. [584. 

In the year 575, Sigbert gained a complete victory over 
Cliilperic, and was lifted upon a shield by the warriors of the 
latter, who hailed him as their king. In that instant he was 
stabbed in the back , and died upon the field of his triumph. 
Chilperic resumed his sway, and soon took Brunliilde prisoner, 
while her young son, Childebert, escaped to Germany. But 
his own son, Merwig, espoused Brunhilde's cause, secretly re- 
leased her from prison , and then married her. A war next 
arose between father and son , in which the former was suc- 
cessful. He cut off Merwig's long hair, and shut him up in a 
monastery; but, for some unexplained reason, he allowed Brun- 
liilde to go free. In the meantime Fredegunde had borne three 
sons, who all died soon after their birth. She accused her own 
step-son of having caused their deaths by witchcraft, and he 
and his mother , one of Chilperic's former wives , were put to 
death. 

Both Chilperic and his brother Guntram , who reigned at 
Orleans, were without male heirs. At this juncture, the Ger- 
man chiefs and nobles demanded to have Childebert, the 3^oung 
son of Sigbert and Brunhilde, who had taken refuge among 
them , recognized as the heir to the Frankish throne. Chil- 
peric consented, on condition that Childebert, with such forces 
as he could command, would march with him against Guntram, 
who had despoiled him of a great deal of his territory. The 
treaty was made, in spite of the opposition of Brunhilde, whose 
sister's murder was not yet avenged, and the civil wars were 
renewed. Both sides gained or lost alternately, without any 
decided result, until the assassination of Chilperic, by an un- 
known hand, in 584. A few months before his death, Fre- 
degunde had borne him another son, Clotar, who lived, and 
was at once presented by his mother as Childebert's rival to 
the throne. 

The struggle between the two widowed queens, Brunhilde 
and Fredegunde, was for awhile delayed by the appearance of 
a new claimant , Gundobald , who had been a fugitive in Con- 



What was Sigbcrt's fate? When? What happened to Brunliilde? Wliat 
was the result of the war which followed? What did Fredegunde do? What 
did the Germans demand? What treaty was made? Who opposed it? When 
and how did Chilperic die ? Who was presented as heir to the throne? 



59?.J CLOTAR H. 93 

stantinople for many years, and declared that he was Chilperic's 
brother. He obtained the support of many Austrasian (Ger- 
man) princes, and was for a time so successful that Frede- 
gunde was forced to take refuge with Guntram, at Orleans. 
The latter also summoned Childebert to his capital, and per- 
suaded him to make a truce with Fredegunde and her adherents, 
in order that both might act against their common rival. 
Gundobald and his followers were soon destroyed : Guntram 
died in 593, and Childebert was at once accepted as his suc- 
cessor. His kingdom included that of Charibert, whose capital 
was Paris, and that of his father, Sigbert, embracing all 
Frankish Germany. But the nobles and people, accustomed to 
conspiracy, treachery and crime, could no longer be depended 
upon, as formerly. They were beginning to return to their 
former system of living upon war and pillage, instead of the 
honest arts of peace. 

Fredegunde still held the kingdom of Chilperic for her son 
Clotar. After strengthening herself by secret intrigues with 
the Frank nobles, she raised an army, put herself at its head, 
and marched against Childebert, who was defeated and soon 
afterwards poisoned, after having reigned only three years. 
His realm was divided between his two young sons, one re- 
ceiving Burgundy and the other Germany, under the guardian- 
ship) of their grandmother Brunhilde. Fredegunde followed up 
her success, took Paris and Orleans from the heirs of Childebert, 
and died in 597, leaving her son Clotar, then in his fourteenth 
year, as king of more than half of France. He was crowned as 
Clotar H. 

Death placed Brunhild e's rival out of the reach of her re- 
venge, but she herself might have secured the whole kingdom 
of the Franks for her two grandsons , had she not quarrelled 
with one and stirred up war between them. The first con- 
sequence of this new strife was that Alsatia and Eastern 



What delayed the strife between Brunhilde and Fredegunde? What suc- 
cess had he? What measures were adopted against him? What followed? 
Who succeeded to the kingdom, and when? What change took place among 
the people? What was Childebert's fate? How was his kingdom divided? 
What was the end of Fredegunde, and whom did she leave? Wuat was 
Brunhilde's next step? 



94 MUEDER OF BEUXHILDE. [613. 

Switzerland were separated from Neustria, or France, and 
attached to Austria, or Germany. Brunhilde, finding that her 
cause was desperate, procured the assistance of Clotar 11. for 
herself and her favorite grandson, Theuderich. The fortune of 
war now turned, and before long the other grandson, Theu- 
dobert, was taken prisoner. By his brother's order he was 
formally deposed from his kingly authority, and then executed : 
the brains of his infant son were dashed out against a stone. 

It was not long before this crime was avenged. A quarrel 
in regard to the division of the spoils arose between Theuderich 
and Clotar II. The former died in the beginning of the war 
which followed , leaving four young sons to the care of their 
great-grandmother, the queen Brunhilde. Clotar 11. immediately 
marched against her, but, knowing her ability and energy, he 
obtained a promise from the nobles of Bui^gundy and Germany 
who were unfriendly to Brunhilde, tliat they would come over 
to his side at the critical moment. The aged queen had called 
her people to arms , and , like her rival, Fredegunde , put her- 
self at their head; but when the armies met, on the river Aisne 
in Champagne, the traitors in her own camp joined Clotar 11. 
and the struggle was ended without a battle. Brunhilde, then 
eighty years old, was taken prisoner, cruelly tortured for three 
days, and then tied by her gray hair to the tail of a wild horse 
and dragged to death. The four sons of Theuderich were put to 
death at the same time, and thus, in the year 613, Clotar U. 
became king of all the Franks. A priest named Fredegar, 
who wrote his biography, says of him : "He was a most patient 
man, learned and pious, and kind and sympathizing towards 
every one 1 " 

Clotar II. possessed, at least, energy enough to preserve 
a sway which was based on a long succession of the worst 
crimes that disgrace humanity. In 622, six years before his 
death, he made his oldest son, Dagobert, a boy of sixteen, 
king of the German half of his realm, but was obliged, im- 



"What was the consequence of it? "Whose assistance did she ask? What 
was the result? What new quarrel and death followed? What measure did 
Clotar take? How did it succeed? What was Brunhilde's fate? How else 
did Clotar ensure his success? When was it? What does his biographer 
say of him? Whom did he make king of Germany, and when? 



G28.] KING DAGOBEET. 95 

mediately afterwards, to assist him against the Saxons. He 
entered their territory, seized the people, massacred all who 
groved to be taller than his own two-handed sword, and then 
returned to France without having subdued the spirit or re- 
ceived the allegiance of the bold race. Nothing of importance 
occurred during the remainder of his reign; he died in 628, 
leaving his kingdom to his two sons, Dagobert and Charibert. 
The former easily possessed himself of the lion's share, giving 
his younger brother only a small strip of territory along the 
river Loire. Charibert, however, drove the last remnant of 
the Visigoths into Spain , and added the country between the 
Garonne and the Pyrenees to his little kingdom. The name 
of Aquitaine was given to this region, and Charibert's des- 
cendants became its Dukes, subject to the kings of the Franks. 

Dagobert had been carefully educated by Pippin of Landen, 
the Royal Steward of Clotar II., and by Arnulf, the Bishop of 
Metz. He had no quality of greatness, but he promised to be, 
at least, a good and just sovereign. He became at once popular 
with the masses, who began to long for peace, and for the res- 
toration of rights which had been partly lost during the civil 
wars. The nobles, however, who had drawn the greatest ad- 
vantage from those wars, during which their support was pur- 
chased by one side or the other, grew dissatisfied. They cun- 
ningly aroused in Dagobert the love of luxury and the sensual 
vices which had ruined his ancestors , and thus postponed the 
reign of law and justice to wliich the people were looking 
forward. 

In fact, that system of freedom and equality which the 
Germanic races had so long possessed, was already shaken to 
its very base. During the long and bloody feuds of the Mero- 
vingian kings, many changes had been made in the details of 
government , all tending to increase the power of the nobles, 
the civil officers and the dignitaries of the Church. Wealth — 
the bribes paid for their support — had accumulated in the 
hands of these classes, while the farmers, mechanics and tra- 

How did he treat the Saxons? When did he die? Who succeeded? What 
was Charibert's share, and how did he increase it? What was the territory 
called? Who educated Dagobert? What did his character promise? What 
course did the nobles take in regard to him, and why? How had the govem- 
ment gradually changed? 



96 END OF THE MEKOVINGIAN POTVER. [638. 

desmen, plundered in turn by both parties, had constantly- 
grown poorer. Although the external signs of civilization had 
increased, the race had already lost much of its moral character, 
and some of the best features of its political system. 

There are few chronicles which inform us of the affairs of 
Germany, during this period. The Avars, after their treaty 
of peace ^vith Sigbert, directed their incursions against the 
Bavarians, but without gaining any permanent advantage. On 
the other hand, the Slavonic tribes, especially the Bohemians, 
united under the rule of a renegade Frank, whose name was 
Samo, and who acquired a part of Thiiringia, after defeating 
the Frank army which was sent against him. The Saxons and 
Thiiringians then took the war into their own hands, and drove 
back Samo and his Slavonic hordes. By this victory the Saxons 
released themselves from the payment of an annual tribute to 
the Frank kings, and the Thiiringians became strong enough 
to organize themselves again as a people and elect their own 
Duke. The Franks endeavored to suppress this new organiza- 
tion, but they were defeated by the Duke, Radulf, nearly on 
the same spot where, just one hundred years before, Tlieu- 
derich, the son of Chlodwig, had crushed the Thtiringian king- 
dom. From that time, Thiiringia was placed on the same foot- 
ing as Bavaria, tributary to the Franks, but locally independent. 

King Dagobert, weak, swayed by whatever influence was 
nearest, and voluptuous rather than cruel, died in 638, before 
he had time to do much evil. He w^as the last of the Merovin- 
gian line who exercised any actual power. The dynasty existed 
for a century longer, but its monarchs were merely puppets 
in the hands of stronger men. Its history, from the beginning, 
is w^ell illustrated by a tradition current among the people, 
concerning the mother of Chlodwig. They relate that soon 
after her marriage she had a vision, in which she gave birth 
to a lion (Chlodwig), whose descendants were wolves and bears, 
and their descendants, in turn, frisky dogs. 



Who had become rich, and who poor? "What was going on in Germany? 
How were the Slavonic tribes united? What conquest did they make? What 
movement followed? What did the Saxons and ThUringians gain by it? How 
did the Franks succeed? WJiat did Thiiringia become? When did Dagobert 
die? How long did the dynasty last, and in wliat form? What tradition 
existod among the people? 



633 ] THE ROYAL STEWARDS. 97 

Before the death of Dagobert — in fact, during the life of 
Clotar II,, — a new power had grown up within the kingdom 
of the Franks, which gradually pushed the Merovingian dynasty 
out of its place. The history of this power, after 638, becomes 
the history of the realm, and we now turn from the bloody 
kings to trace its origin, rise and final triumph. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE DYNASTY OF THE ROYAIi STEWARDS. (638 768). 

The Steward of the Royal Household.— His Government of the Royal Lehen. 
— His Position and Opportunities.— Pippin of Landen. — His Sway in Ger- 
many. — Gradual Transfer of Power. — Grimoald Steward of France. — Pip- 
pin of Heristall. — His Successes. — Cooperation with the Church of Rome. 
— Quarrels between his Heirs. — Karl defeats his Rivals. — Becomes sole 
Steward of the Empire. — He favors Christian Missions. — The Labors of 
Winfried (Bishop Bonifacius).— Invasion of the Saracens. — The Great 
Battle of Poitiers. — Karl is surnamed Martel, the Hammer. — His Wars and 
Marches. — His Death and Character. — Pippin the Short. — He subdues the 
German Dukes. — Assists Pope Zacharias. — Is anointed King.— Death of 
Bonifacius. — Pippin defeats the Lombards. — Gives the Pope Temporal 
Power. — His Death, 

We have mentioned Pippin of Landen as the Royal Steward 
of Clotar II. His office gave birth to the new power which 
grew up beside the Merovingian rule and finally suppressed 
it. In the chronicles of the time the officer is called the Ma- 
jordomiis of the King, — a word which is best translated by 
"Steward of the Royal Household ;" but in reality, it embraced 
much more extended and important powers than the title 
would imply. In their conquests, the Franks — as we have al- 
ready stated — usually claimed at least one- third of the terri- 
tory which fell into their hands. A part of this was portioned 
out among the chief men and the soldiers; a part was set aside 
as the king's share, and still another part became the common 
property of the people. The latter, therefore, fell into the 



What change was about to take place? 

What was the new power under the Merovingian kings ? How was tho 
conquered territory divided? 



98 THE "lEHEn" system. [638. 

habit of electing a Steward to guard and superintend this pro- 
perty in their interest; and, as the kings became involved in 
their family feuds, the charge of the royal estates was entrusted 
to the hands of the same steward. 

The latter estates soon became, by conquest, so extensive 
and important, that the king gave the use of many of them 
for a term of years, or for life, to private individuals, in re- 
turn for military services. This was called the Lclien (lien, or 
loan) system, to distinguish it from the Allod (allotment), 
wljereby a part of the conquered lands were divided by lot, 
and became the free property of those to whom they fell. The 
Lehen gave rise to a new class, whose fortunes w^ere im- 
mediately dependent on the favor of the king, and who con- 
sequently, when they appeared at the National Assemblies, 
voted on his side. Such a "loaned" estate was also called feod, 
whence the term ^^feudal system," which, gradually modified 
by time, grew from this basis. The importance of the Royal 
Steward in the kingdom is thus explained. The office, at 
first, had probably a mere business character. After Chlod- 
wig's time, the civil wars by wliich the estates of the king 
and the people became subject to constant change, gave the 
steward a political power, which increased with each genera- 
tion. He stood between the monarch and his subjects, mth 
the best opportunity for acquiring an ascendency over the 
minds of both. At first , he was only elected for a year , and 
his reelection depended on the honesty and ability with wliich 
he had discharged his duties. During the convulsions of the 
dynasty, he, in common with king and nobles, gained what 
rights the people lost: he began to retain his office for a 
longer time, then for life, and finally demanded that it should 
be hereditary in liis family. 

The Royal Stewards of Burgundy and Germany played an 
important part in the last struggle between Clotar II. and 
Brunhilde. When the successful king, in 622, found that the 
increasing difference of language and habits between the 

Why was a steward chosen? What use did the king make of his estates? 
What was this system called? What was the other system? What kind of 
a class was thus created? How else were the estates called? How did the 
Steward's office change in character? What cluinges were made in tlie term 
of holding it? 



[638. PIPPIN OF LANDEN. 99 

eastern and western portions of his realm required a separation 
of the government, and made his young son, Dagobert, ruler over 
the German half, he was compelled to recognize Pippin of 
Landen as his Steward, and to trust Dagobert entirely to his 
hands. The dividing line between "Austria" and "Neustria" was 
drawn along the chain of the Yosges, through the forest of 
Ardennes, and terminated near the mouth of the Schelde, — 
almost the same line which divides the German and French 
languages , at this day. 

Pippin was a Frank, born in the Netherlands, a man of 
energy and intelligence, but of little principle. He had, never- 
theless, shrewdness enough to see the necessity of maintain- 
ing the unity and peace of the kingdom, and he endeavored, 
in conjunction with Bishop Arnulf of Metz , to make a good 
king of Dagobert. They made him, indeed, amiable and well- 
meaning, but they could not overcome the instability of liis 
character. After Clotar II.'s death, in 628, Dagobert passed 
the remaining ten years of his life in France , under the con- 
trol of others, and the actual government of Germany was 
exercised by Pippin. 

The period of transition between the power of the kings, 
gradually sinking, and the power of the Stewards, steadily 
rising, lasted about 50 years. The latter power, however, was 
not allowed to increase without frequent struggles, partly 
from the jealousy of the nobility and priesthood, partly from 
the resistance of the people to the extinction of their remain- 
ing rights. But, after the devastation left behind by the fra- 
tricidal wars of the Merovingians, all parties felt the necessity 
of a strong and well-regulated government, and the long ex- 
perience of the Stewards gave them the advantage. 

Grimoald, the son and successor of Pippin in the steward- 
ship of Germany, made an attempt to usurp the royal power, 
but failed. This event, and the interference of a Steward of 
France with the rights of the dynasty, led the Franks, in 670 



Why did Clotar appoint Pippin of Landen? "What was tho dividing line 
between Austria and Neustria? Who was Pippin?. What was his course 
towards Dagobert? What government did he exercise? How long before the 
chief power passed from the kings to the Stewards? What gave the latter 
au advantage? What did Grimoald attempt? 



100 PIPPIN OF HEBISTALL. ["687. 

— when the whole kingdom was again united under Childeric II., 
— to decree that the Stewards should be elected annually by 
the people, as in the beginning. But when Childaric II., like 
the most of his predecessors, was murdered, the deposed 
Steward of France regained his power, forced the people to 
accept him, and attempted to extend his government over Ger- 
many. In spite of a fierce resistance, headed by Pippin of 
Heristall, the grandson of Pippin of Landen, he partly main- 
tained his authority until the year 681, when he was murdered 
in turn. 

Pippin of Heristall was also the grandson of Arnulf, Bishop 
of Metz, whose son, Anchises, had married Begga, the daughter 
of Pippin of Landen. He was thus of Roman blood by his 
father's, and Frank by his mother's side. As soon as his 
authority was secured , as Royal Steward of Germany , he in- 
vaded France, and a desperate struggle for the stewardship of 
the whole kingdom ensued. It was ended in 687 by a battle 
near St. Quentin, in which Pippin was victorious. He used his 
success with a moderation very rare in those days: he did 
honor to the Frank king , Theuderich III., who had fallen into 
his hands, spared the lives and possessions of all who had 
fought against him, on their promise not to take up arms 
against his authority, and even continued many of the chief 
officials of the Franks in their former places. 

From this date the Merovingian monarch became a shadow. 
Pippin paid him all external signs of allegiance , kept up the 
ceremonies of his Court, supplied him with ample revenues, 
and governed the kingdom in his name ; but the actual power 
was concentrated in his own hands. France , Switzerland and 
the greater part of Germany were subjected to his government, 
although there were still elements of discontent within the 
realm, and of trouble outside of its borders. The dependent 
dukedoms of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Alemannia, Bavaria and 
Thiiringia were restless under the yoke; the Saxons and Fri- 
sians on the north were hostile and defiant, and the Slavonic 



To what did this lead? "What was Grimoald's next movement? What 
was his end, and when? Who was Pippin of HeristaU? What did he do? 
When and where was he successful? What was his policy afterwards? How 
did he treat the king? How was his rule accepted throughout the Empire? 



700.] CONYEKSION OF THE GERMANS. 101 

races all along the eastern frontier had not yet given up their 
invasions. 

Pippin, lil^e the French rulers after him, down to the pre- 
sent day, perceived the advantage of having the Church on 
nis side. Moreover , he was the grandson of a Bishop, which 
circumstance — although it did not prevent him from taking 
two wives — enabled him better to understand the power of the 
ecclesiastical system of Eome. In the early part of the seventh 
century, several Christian missionaries, principally Irish, had 
begun their labors among the Alemanni and the Bavarians, 
Dut the greater part of these people, with all the Thiiringians, 
Saxons and Frisians , were still worshippers of the old pagan 
gods. Pippin saw that the latter must be taught submission, 
and accustomed to authority, through the Church, and, with 
his aid, all the southern part of Germany became Christian in 
a few years. Force was employed, as well as persuasion; but, 
at that time, the end was considered to sanction any means. 

Pippin's rule (we cannot call it reign) was characterized 
by the greatest activity, patience and prudence. From year 
to year the kingdom of the Franks became better organized 
and stronger in all its features of government. Brittany, Bur- 
gundy and Aquitaine were kept quiet; the northern part of 
Holland w^as conquered, and immediately given into charge of 
a band of Anglo-Saxon monks; and Germany, although restless 
and dissatisfied, was held more firmly than ever. Pippin of 
Heristall, while he was simply called a Royal Steward, exer- 
cised a wider power than any monarch of his time. 

When he died, in the year 714, the kingdom was for 
awhile convulsed by feuds which threatened to repeat the 
bloody annals of the Merovingians. His heirs were Theudowald, 
his grandson by his wife Plektrude, and Karl and Hildebrand, 
his sons by his wife, Alpheid. He chose the former as his suc- 
cessor, and Plektrude, in order to suppress any opposition to 
this arrangement, imprisoned her step-son Karl. But the Bur- 



TVhat races were hostile? "What was his position towards the Church? 
What missionaries were at work, and among what tribes ? What did Pippin 
accomplish? What was the character of his rule? What was the condition 
of the Empire? When did he die, and what followed? Who were his heirs? 
What followed his choice? 



102 CIYIL WAES UNDER KAEL. |715. 

gundians immediately revolted , elected one of their chiefs, 
Kaginfried, to the office of Royal Steward, and defeated the 
Franks in a battle in which Theudowald was slain. Karl, 
having escaped from prison, put himself at the head of affairs, 
supported by a majority of the German Franks. He was a 
man of strong personal influence, and inspired his followers 
with enthusiasm and faith; but his chances seemed very 
desperate. His step-mother, Plektrude, opposed him: the 
Burgundians and French Franks, led by Eaginfried, were 
marching against him, and Radbod, Duke of Friesland, invaded 
the territory which he was bound by his office to defend. 

Karl had the choice of three enemies, and he took the one 
which seemed most dangerous. He attacked Radbod, but was 
forced to fall back, and this repulse emboldened the Saxons to 
make a foray into the land of the Hessians, as the old Ger- 
manic tribe of the Chatti were now called. Radbod advanced 
to Cologne, which was held by Plektrude and her followers: 
at the same time Raginfried approached from the west, and 
the city was thus besieged by two separate armies, hostile to 
each other, yet both having the same end in view. Between 
the two, Karl managed to escape, and retreated to the forest 
of Ardennes , where he set about reconstructing his shattered 
army. 

Cologne was too strong to be assailed, and Plektrude, who 
possessed large treasures, soon succeeded in buying off Radbod 
and Raginfried. The latter, on his return to France, came 
into collision with Karl, who, though repelled at first, finally 
drove him in confusion to the walls of Paris. Karl then sud- 
denly wheeled about and marched against Cologne, which fell 
into his hands: Plektrude, leaving her wealth as his booty, 
fled to Bavaria. This victory secured to Karl the stewardship 
over Germany, but a king was wanting , to make the forms o! 
royalty complete. The direct Merovingian line had run out, 
and Raginfried had been obliged to take a monk , an offshoot 
of the family, and place him on the throne, under the name of 



What part did the Burgundians take? What was Karl's situation? With 
whom had he to contend? What was his first movement? By whom waa 
Cologne hesieged ? Where did Karl retreat ? How did Plektrude relieve Co- 
logne? What were Karl's successes? 



T19.J KAEL, STEWARD OF THE EMPIRE. 103 

Chilperic 11. K^rl, after a little search, discovered another 
Merovingian, whom he installed in the German half of the 
kingdom , as Clotar III. That done , he attacked the invading 
Saxons, defeated and drove them beyond the Weser river. 

He was now free to meet the rebellious Franks of France, 
who in the meantime had strengthened themselves by offering 
to Duke Eudo of Aquitaine the acknowledgment of his in- 
dependent sovereignty in return for his support. A decisive 
battle was fought in the year 719, and Karl was again vic- 
torious. The nominal king, Chilperic II., Raginfried and Duke 
Eudo fled into the south of France. Karl began negotiations 
with the latter for the delivery of the fugitive king; but just 
at this time his own puppet, Clotar III., happened to die, and, 
as there was no other Merovingian left, the pretence upon 
which his stewardship was based obliged him to recognize 
Chilperic II. Raginfried resigned his office , and Karl was at 
last nominal Steward , and actual monarch, of the kingdom of 
the Franks. 

His first movement was to deliver Germany from its in- 
vaders, and reestablish the dependency of its native Dukes. 
The death of the fierce Radbod enabled him to reconquer 
West Friesland : the Saxons were then driven back and firmly 
held within their original bdundaries, and finally the Alemanni 
and Bavarians were compelled to make a formal acknowledg- 
ment of the Frank rule. As regards Thiiringia , which seems 
to have remained a Dukedom, the chronicles of the time give 
us little information. It is probable, however, that the in- 
vasions of the Saxons on the north and the Slavonic tribes on 
the east gave the people of Central Germany no opportunity 
to resist the authority of the Franks. The work of conver- 
sion, encouraged by Pippin of Heristall as a political measure, 
was still continued by the zeal of the Irish and Anglo-Saxon 
missionaries, and in the beginning of the eighth century it re- 
ceived a powerful impulse from a new apostle, a man of 
singular ability and courage. 



Whom had Raginfried established as king? Whom did Karl choose? 
What course did the Franks take? What was the end of the struggle? What 
did Karl become? What was his first measure? What did he accomplish? 
What work was going on in Germany? 



104 WINFRIED, THE APOSTLK* [725. 

He was a Saxon of England , born in Devonshire in the 
year 680, and Winfried by name. Educated in a monastery, 
at a time when the struggle between Christianity and the old 
Germanic faith was at its height, he resolved to devote his 
life to missionary labors. He first went to Friesland, during 
the reign of Radbod, and spent three years in a vain attempt 
to convert the people. Then he visited Rome, offered his ser- 
vices to the Pope, and was commissioned to undertake the 
work of christianizing Central Germany. On reaching the field 
of his labors, he manifested such zeal and intelligence that he 
soon became the leader and director of the missionary enter- 
j)rise. It is related that at Geismar, in the land of the Hes- 
sians, he cut down with his own hands an aged oak-tree, 
sacred to the god Thor. This and other similar acts inspired 
the people with such awe that they began to believe that their 
old gods were either dead or helpless, and they submissively 
accepted the new faith without understanding its character, 
or following it otherwise than in observing the external forms 
of worship. 

On a second visit to Rome, Winfried was appointed by the 
Pope Archbishop of Mayence, and ordered to take, thenceforth, 
the name of Bonifacius (Benefactor) , by which he is known in 
history. He was confirmed in this office by Karl, to whom he 
had rendered valuable political services by the conversion of the 
Thiiringians, and who had a genuine respect for his lofty and 
unselfish character. The spot where he built the first Christian 
church in Central Germany, about 12 miles from Gotha, at 
the foot of the Thiiringian Mountains, is now marked by a 
colossal candlestick of granite, surmounted by a golden flame. 

After Karl had been for several years actively employed 
in regulating the afiairs of his great realm, and especially, 
with the aid of Bishop Bonifacius, in establishing an authority 
in Germany equal to that he possessed in France, he had every 
prospect of a powerful and peaceful rule. But suddenly a 
new danger threatened not only the Franks, but all Europe. 



Who was Winfried? Where were his first labors? What did he then do? 
What is related of his work in Germany? What effect had it on the people? 
How was he promoted? What name was given to him? How did Karl treat 
him ? Where was the first Church in Central Germany ? What new danger 
threatened the Franks? 



732.] THE BATTLE OF POITIERS. 105 

The Saracens, crossing from Africa, defeated the Visigoths and 
slew Roderick, their king, in the year 711. Gradually pos- 
sessing themselves of all Spain, they next collected a tremendous 
army, and in 731, under the command of Abderrahman, 
Viceroy of the Caliph of Damascus, set out for the conquest of 
France. Thus the new Christian faith of Europe, still engaged 
in quelling the last strength of the ancient paganism, was 
suddenly called upon to meet the newer faith of Mohammed, 
which had determined to subdue the world. 

Not only France, but the Eastern Empire, Italy and Eng- 
land looked to Karl, in this emergency. The Saracens crossed 
the Pyrenees with 350,000 warriors, accompanied by their 
wives and children , as if they were sure of victory and meant 
to possess the land. Karl called the military strength of the 
whole broad kingdom into the field , collected an army nearly 
equal in numbers, and finally, in October, 732, the two hosts 
stood face to lace, near the city of Poitiers. It was a struggle 
almost as grand, and as fraught with important consequences 
to the world, as that of ^etius and Attila, nearly 300 years 
before. Six days were spent in preparations, and on the 
seventh the battle began. The Saracens attacked with that 
daring and impetuosity which had gained them so many vic- 
tories ; but, as the old chronicle says : "the Franks, with their 
strong hearts and powerful bodies, stood like a wall, and 
hewed down the Arabs with iron hands." When night fell, 
200,000 dead and wounded lay upon the field. Karl made 
preparations for resuming the battle on the following morn- 
ing, but he found no enemy. The Saracens had retired during 
the night, leaving their camps and stores behind them, and 
their leader, Abderrahman, among the slain. This was the 
first great check the cause of Islam received , after a series of 
victories more wonderful than those of Rome. From that day 
the people bestowed upon Karl the surname of Martcl , the 
Hammer, and as Charles Martel he is best known in history. 

He was not able to follow up his advantage immediately. 



When was the invasion, and under -whose command? What was its force 
and character? What measures did Karl take? When and where did he 
meet the enemy? What time was spent in preparations? Describe the battle. 
What occurred next morning? What name was given to Karl? 



106 DEATH OF KARL MARTEL. [741. 

for the possibility of liis defeat by the Saracens had emboldened 
his enemies, at home and abroad, to rise against his authority. 
The Frisians, under Poppo, thei'r new Duke, made another in- 
vasion; the Saxons followed their example; the Burgundians 
attempted a rebellion, and tlie sons of Duke Eudo of Aquitaine, 
imitating the example of their ancestors, the Merovingian 
kings, began to quarrel about the succession. While Karl 
Martel (as we must now call him) was engaged in suppressing 
all these troubles, the Saracens, with the aid of the malcontent 
Burgundians, occupied all the territory bordering the Mediter- 
ranean, on both sides of the Rhone. He was not free to march 
against them until 737, when he made his appearance with a 
large army, retook Avignon, Aries and Nismes, and left them 
in possession only of Narbonne , which was too strongly for- 
tified to be taken by assault. 

Karl Martel was recalled to the opposite end of the king- 
dom by a fresh invasion of the Saxons. When this had been 
repelled, and the northern frontier in Germany strengthened 
against the hostile race, the Burgundian nobles in Provence 
sought a fresh alliance with the Saracens, and compelled him 
to return instantly from the Weser to the shores of the Me- 
diterranean. He suppressed the rebellion, but was obliged to 
leave the Saracens in possession of a part of the coast , be- 
tween the Rhone and the Pyrenees. During his stay in the 
south of France, the Pope, Gregory H., entreated him to come 
to Italy and relieve Rome from the oppression of Luitprand, 
king of the Longobards. He did not accept the invitation, 
but it apjDcars that, as mediator, he assisted in concluding a 
treaty between the Pope and king , which arranged their dif- 
ferences for a time. 

Worn out by his life of marches and battles, Karl Martel 
became prematurely old, and died in 741, at the age of 50, 
after a reign of 27 years. He inherited the activity, the ability, 
and also the easy principles of his father, Pij^pin of Heristall. 
But his authority was greatly increased, and he used it to 



What was the result of the Saracen invasion? What tribes and provinces 
arose against Karl? What advantage did the Saracens gain? When did ho 
again march against them, and with what result? What new troubles fol- 
lowed? What territory did the Saracens keep? Who appealed to Karl for 
help, and what did he do? When did he die, and at what age? 



742.J CIVIL WAES. 107 

lessen the remnant of their original freedom which the people 
still retained. The free Germanic Franks were accustomed to 
meet every year, in the month of March (as on the Champ cle 
Mars, or March-field, at Paris), and discuss all national mat- 
ters. In Chlodwig's time the royal dependents were added to 
the free citizens and allowed an equal voice, which threw an 
additional power into the hands of the monarch. Karl Martel 
convoked the national assembly, declared war or made peace, 
without asking the people's consent; while, by adding the 
priesthood and the nobles, with their dependents, to the 
number of those entitled to vote, he broke down the ancient 
power of the state and laid the foundation of a more absolute 
system. 

Shortly before his death, Karl Martel summoned a council 
of the princes and nobles of his realm, and obtained their con- 
sent that his eldest son, Karloman, should succeed him as 
Royal Steward of Germany , and his second son , Pippin , sur- 
named the Short, as Royal Steward of France and Burgundy. 
The Merovingian throne had already been vacant for four 
years, but the monarch had beconie so insignificant that this 
circumstance was scarcely noticed. On his death-bed, however, 
Karl Martel was persuaded by Swanhilde, one of his wives, to 
bequeath a part of his dominions to her son, Grifo. This gave 
rise to great discontent among the people, and furnished the 
subject Dukes of Bavaria, Alemannia and Aquitaine with 
another opportunity for endeavoring to regain their lost in- 
dependence. 

Karloman and Pippin, in order to strengthen their cause, 
sought for a descendant of the Merovingian line, and, having 
found him, they proclaimed him king, under the name of 
Childeric III. This step secured to them the allegiance of the 
Franks, but the conflict with the refractory Dukedoms lasted 
several years. Battles were fought on the Loire, on the Lech, 
in Bavaria, and then again on the Saxon frontier : finally Aqui- 
taine was subdued, Alemannia lost its Duke and became a 



How had he used his power ? How did the Franks settle national mat- 
ters? What change took place, and in whose reign? How did Karl govern? 
What arrangements did he make for his sons? Who persuaded him to make 
a change? What was it? What was the consequence? What course was 
taken by Karloman and Pippin? 



108 PIPPIX THE SHOET MADE KING. [762. 

Frank province, and Bavaria agreed to a truce. In this struggle, 
Karloman and Pippin received important sujDport from Boni- 
facius, a part of whose aim it was to bring all the Christian 
communities to acknowledge the Pope of Rome as the sole 
head of the Church. They gave him their support in return, 
and thus the Franks were drawn into closer relations with the 
ecclesiastical power. 

In the year 747, Karloman resigned his power, went to 
Rome, and was made a monk by Pojoe Zacharias. Soon after- 
wards Grifo, the son of Karl Martel and Swanhilde, made a 
second attempt to conquer his rights, w4th the aid of the 
Saxons. Pippin the Short allied himself with the Wends , a 
Slavonic race settled in Prussia, and ravaged the Saxon land, 
forcing a part of the inhabitants, at the point of the sword, to 
be baptized as Christians. Griib fled to Bavaria, where the 
Duke, Tassilo, espoused his cause, but Pippin the Short fol- 
lowed close upon his heels, with so strong a force that re- 
sistance was no longer possible. A treaty was made whereby 
Grifo was consigned to private life, the hereditary rights of 
the Bavarian Dukes reco^^nized by the Franks , and the sover- 
eignty of the Franks accepted by the Bavarians. 

Pippin the Short had found, through his own experience 
as well as that of his ancestors, that the pretence of a Merovin- 
gian king only worked confusion in the realm of the Franks, 
since it furnished to the subordinate races and principalities a 
constant pretext for revolt. When, therefore. Pope Zacharias 
found himself threatened by Aistulf, the successor of Luitprand 
as king of the Longobards, and sent an embassy to Pippin the 
Short, appealing for his assistance, the latter returned to him 
this question: "Does the kingdom belong to him who exer- 
cises the power, without the name, or to him who bears the 
name, without possessing the power?" The answer was what 
he expected: a general assembly was called together in 752, 
Pippin was anointed King by the Archbishop Bonifacius, then 



"What was the character of the war which followed? "What part did Boni- 
facius take? "What was the end of Karloman's history? What new attempt 
was made by Grifo? How did Pippin meet it, and what was liis success? 
What was the end of the struggle? Wliat was Pippin's experience concern- 
ing the Merovingians? Who askod his aid, and under what circumstanoos ? 
What question did Pippin ask? 



755.J 



DEATH OF BONirACIUS. 



109 



lifted on a shield according to the ancient custom and accepted 
by the nobles and people. The shadowy Merovingian king, 
Childeric III., was shorn of his long hair, the sign of royalty, 
and sent into a monastery, where he disappeared from the 
world. Pippin now possessed sole and unlimited sway over 




DEATH OF BONIFACIUS. 



the kingdom of the Franks, and named himself "King by the 
Grace of God," — an example which has been followed by most 
monarchs, down to our day. On the other hand, the de- 
cision of Zacharias was a great step gained by the Papal power, 
which thenceforth began to exalt its prerogatives over those 
of the rulers of nations. 



When was Pippin anointed King, and by whom? What became of Chil- 
deric III.? How did Pippin style himself? What did both he and the Pope 
eain by this step? 



110 PIPPIN ASSISTS THE POPE. [755. 

Pippin's first duty, as king, was to repel a new invasion of 
the Saxons. His power was so much increased by his title 
that he was able, at once, to lead against them such a force 
that they were compelled to pay a tribute of 300 horses an- 
nually, and to allow Christian missionaries to reside among 
them. The latter condition was undoubtedly the suggestion 
of Bonifacius, who determined to carry the cross to the North 
Sea, and complete the conversion of Germany. He himself 
undertook a mission to Friesland, where he had failed as a 
young monk, and there, in 755, at the age of 75, he was slain 
by the fierce pagans. He died like a martyr, refusing to defend 
himself, and was enrolled among the number of Saints. 

In the year 754, Pope Stephan H. the successor of Zacha- 
rias, appeared in France as a personal supplicant for the aid 
of King Pippin. Aistulf, the Longobard king, who had driven 
the Byzantines out of the Exarchy of Ravenna , was marching 
against Home , which still nominally belonged to the Eastern 
Empire. To make his entreaty more acceptable, the Pope 
bestowed on Pippin the title of "Patrician of Rome," and so- 
lemnly crowned both him and his young sons, Karl and Karlo- 
man, in the chapel of St. Denis, near Paris. At the same time 
he issued a ban of excommunication against all persons who 
should support a monarch belonging to any other than the 
reigning dynasty. 

Pippin first endeavored to negotiate with Aistulf, but, 
failing therein, he marched into Italy, defeated the Longobards 
in several battles, and besieged the king in Pavia, his capital. 
Aistulf was compelled to promise that he would give up the 
Exarchy and leave the Pope in peace; but no sooner had Pip- 
pin returned to France that he violated all his promises. On 
the renewed appeals of the Po^De, Pippin came to Italy a second 
time, again defeated the Longobards, and forced Aistulf not 
only to fulfil his former promises, but also to pay the ex- 
penses of the second war. He remained in Italy until the con- 



What was his first duty, as king? What success had he? What was the 
design of Bonifacius? When, and under what circumstances, did he die? 
Why did Pope Stephan II. visit France? What honors did he confer on 
Pippin and his sons? W^hat proclamation did he make? What did Pippin 
accomplish in Italy? How did Aistulf fulfil his promise? W^Iiat, then, did 
Pippin do? 



768.] DEATH OF PIPPIN. Ill 

ditions were fulfilled, and his son Karl (Charlemagne), then 14 
years old, spent some time in Rome. 

The Byzantine Emperor demanded that the cities of the 
Exarchy should be given back to him, but Pippin transferred 
them to the Pope, who already exercised a temporal power in 
Rome. They were held by the latter, for some time after- 
wards, in the name of the Eastern Empire. The worldly 
sovereignty of the Popes grew gradually from this basis , but 
was not yet recognized, or even claimed. Pippin, nevertheless, 
greatly strengthened the influence of the Church by gifts of 
land, by increasing the privileges of the priesthood, and by 
allowing the ecclesiastical synods , in many cases , to interfere 
in matters of civil government. 

The only other events of his reign were another expedi- 
tion against the unsubdued Saxons , and the expulsion of the 
Saracens from the territory they held between Narbonne and 
the Pyrenees. He died in 768, King instead of Royal Steward, 
leaving to his sons, Karl and Karloman, a greater, stronger 
and better organized dominion than Europe had seen since the 
downfall of the Roman Empire. 



What did the Byzantine Emperor demand? How did the Pope hold the 
cities of the Exarchy? What power sprang from this transactiou? How 
did Pippin strengthen the Church? What were the other events of his reign? 
When did he die ? Who were his successors ? 



112 CHAELEMAGNE SOLE MONARCH. [771. 

CHAPTER XL 

THE EEIGX OF CHAELEMAGXE. (768 — 814.) 

The Partition made by Pippin the Short. — Death of Karloman.— Appearance 
and Character of Charlemagne.— His Place in History.— The Carolingian 
Dynasty. — His "Work as' a Statesman. — Conquest of Lombardy. — Visit to 
Eome.— First Saxon Campaign. — The Chief, Witteldnd. — Assembly at 
Paderborn. — Expedition to Spain. — Defeat at Eoncesvalles. — Eevolt of the 
Saxons. — Second Visit to Rome.— Execution of Saxon Nobles, and Third 
War. — Subjection of Bavaria. — Victory over the Avars.— Final Submission 
of the Saxons. — Visit of Pope Leo III. — Charlemagne crowned Eoman 
Emperor. — The Plan of Temporal and Spiritual Empire. — Intercourse with 
Haroun Alraschid. — Trouble with the Saracens. — Extent of Charlemagne's 
Empire.— His Encouragement of Learning and the Arts. — The Scholars at 
his Court. — Changes in the System of Government.— Loss of Popular 
Freedom. — Charlemagne's Habits. — The Norsemen. — His Son, Ludwig, 
Crowned Emi^eror.— Charlemagne's Death. 

"When King Pippin the Short felt that his end was near, 
he called an assembly of Dukes, nobles and priests, which was 
held at St. Denis, for the purpose of installing his sons, Karl 
and Karloman, as his successors. As he had observed how 
rapidly the French and German halves of his empire were 
separating themselves from each other, in language, habits 
and national character, he determined to change the former 
boundary between "Austria" and "Neustria," which ran nearly 
north and south, and to substitute an arbitrary line running 
east and west. This division was accepted by the assembly, 
but its unpractical character was manifested as soon as Karl 
and Karloman began to reign. There was nothing but trouble 
for three years, at the end of which time the latter died, leaving 
Karl, in 771, sole monarch of the Frank Empire. 

This great man, who looking backwards, saw not his equal 
in history until he beheld Julius Coesar, now began his splendid 
single reign of 43 years. We must henceforth call him 
Charlemagne, the French form of the Latin Carohis Mar/mis^ 
Karl the Great, since by that name he is known in all English 



How did Pippin the Short divide the Empire, and for what reason? "What 
was the effect of this division? When did Karloman die? Whose reign then 
commenced? 



771.] 



CHARLEMAGNE. 



113 



history. He was at this time 29 years old, and m the pride 
of perfect strength and manly beauty. He was nearly seven 
feet high, admirably proportioned , and so developed by toil, 
the chase^and warlike 
exercises that few men 
of his time equalled 
him in muscular 
strength. His face was 
noble and command- 
ing, his hair blond or 
light brown, and his 
eyes a clear, sparkling 
blue. He performed 
the severest duties of 
his office with a quiet 
dignity which heigh- 
tened the impression 
of his intellectual 
power : he was terrible 
and inflexible in crush- 
ing all who attempted 
to interfere with his 
work ; but at the chase, 
the banquet, or in the 
circle of his family and 
friends, no one was 
more frank, joyous 
and kindly than he. 

His dynasty is called 
in history, after him, 
the CaroUngian , al- 
though Pippin of Lan- 
den was its founder. 
The name of Charle- 
magne is extended backwards over the Royal Stewards, 
his ancestors, and after him over a century of successors who 




What is the derivation of his name? What was his age and character? 
Describe his personal appearance. What were his manners ? What name ia 
given to the dynasty? 



114 HIS MAECH TO ITALY. [774. 

gradually faded out like the Merovingian line. He stands 
alone, midway between the Roman Empire and the Middle 
Ages, as the one supreme historical landmark. The task of 
his life was to extend, secure, regulate and develop the power 
of a great empire , much of which was still in a state of semi- 
barbarism. He was no imitator of the Roman Emperors: his 
genius, as a statesman, lay in his ability to understand that 
new forms of government, and a new development of civiliza- 
tion, had become necessary. Like all strong and far-seeing 
rulers, he was despotic, and often fiercely cruel. Those who 
interfered with his plans — even the members of his own family 
— were relentlessly sacrificed. On the other hand, although 
he strengthened the power of the nobility , he never neglected 
the protection of the people; half his days were devoted to 
war, yet he encouraged learning, literature and the arts; and 
while he crushed the independence of the races he gave them a 
higher civilization in its stead. 

Charlemagne first marched against the turbulent Saxons, 
but before they were reduced to order he was called to Italy 
by the appeal of Pope Adrian for help against the Longobards. 
The king of the latter, Desiderius , was the father of Hermin- 
garde, Charlemagne's second wife, whom he had repudiated and 
sent home soon after his accession to the throne. Karloman's 
widow had also claimed the protection of Desiderius , and she, 
with her sons, was living at the latter's court. But these ties 
had no weight with Charlemagne: he coUected a large army 
at Geneva, crossed the Alps by the pass of St. Bernard, con- 
quered all Northern Italy, and besieged Desiderius in Pavia. 
He then marched to Rome, where Pope Adrian received him as 
a liberator. A procession of the clergy and people went forth 
to welcome him, chanting: *' Blessed is he that comes in the 
name of the Lord!" He took part in the ceremonies of Easter, 
774, which were celebrated with great pomp in the Cathedral 
of St. Peter. 



What is Charlemagne's position in history? What was the task of liis 
life? In what did his ability, as a statesman, consist? What was the cha- 
racter 01 his acts? What were the first events of his reign? What was his 
relation to the Lombard king? What course did he take, and with what re- 
sult? When did he visit Home, and what happened? 



775.J WAE WITH THE SAXONS. 115 

In May Pavia fell into Charlemagne's hands. Deslderius 
was sent into a monastery, the widow and children of Karlo- 
man disappeared, and the kingdom of the Longobards, em- 
bracing all Northern and Central Italy, was annexed to the 
empire of the Franks, itie people were allowed to retain both 
their laws and their dukes , or local rulers , but , in spite of 
these privileges, they soon rose in revolt against their con- 
queror. Charlemagne had returned to finish his work with 
the Saxons, when in 776 this revolt called him back to Italy. 
The movement was temporarily suppressed, and he hastened 
to Germany to resume his interrupted task. 

The Saxons were the only remaining Gern^n people who 
resisted both the Frank rule and the introduction of Chris- 
tianity. They held all of what is now Westphalia, Hannover 
and Brunswick, to the river Elbe, and were still strong, in 
spite of their constant and wasting wars. During his first 
campaign, in 772, Charlemagne had overrun Westphalia, taken 
possession of the fortified camp of the Saxons , and destroyed 
the "Irmin-pillar," which seems to have been a monument 
erected to commemorate the defeat of Varus by Hermann. 
The people submitted, and promised allegiance ; but the follow- 
ing year, aroused by the appeals of their duke or chieftain, 
Wittekind, they rebelled in a body. The Frisians joined them, 
the priests and missionaries were slaughtered or expelled, and 
all the former Saxon territory ,• nearly to the Rhine, was re- 
taken by Wittekind. 

Charlemagne collected a large army and renewed the war 
in 775. He pressed forward as far as the river Weser, when, 
carelessly dividing his forces, one half of them were cut to 
pieces, and he was obliged to retreat. His second expedition 
to Italy, at this time, was made with all possible haste, and a 
new army was ready on his return. Westphalia was now 
wasted with fire and sword, and the people generally sub- 
mitted, although they were compelled to be baptized as Chris- 



What was the end of the Lombard war? How did the people submit? 
What was the attitude of the Saxons? Their territory? When was Charle- 
magne's first campaign? What did he do? Who headed the Saxons? What 
was the result? When was the war renewed? What was Charlemagne's 
success ? 



116 



ASSEMBLY AT PADEEBOBN. 



1.777. 



tians. In May, 777, Charlemagne held an assembly of the 
people at Paderborn: nearly all the Saxon nobles attended, 
and swore fealty to him, while many of them submitted to the 
rite of baptism. 




WITTEKIND nARANGUIIfG THE SAXONS. 



At this assembly suddenly appeared a deputation of Sara- 
cen princes from Spain, who sought Charlemagne's help against 
the tyranny of the Caliph of Cordova. He was induced by 
rehgious or ambitious motives to consent, neglecting for the 



IIow did he recover his ground? When and whore did the Saxons sub- 
mit? Who appeared before Charlemagne, and what did they seek? 



778.] THE DEFEAT OF BONCESVALLES. 117 

time the great work he had undertaken in his own Empire. 
In the summer of 778 he crossed the Pyrenees, took the cities 
of Pampeluna and Saragossa, and delivered all Spain north of 
the Ebro river from the hands of the Saracen Caliph. This 
territory was attached to the empire as the Spanish Mark , or 
province: it was inhabited both by Saracens and Franks, who 
dwelt side by side and became more or less united in language, 
habits and manners. 

On his return to France , Charlemagne was attacked by a 
large force of the native Basques , in the pass of Roncesvalles, 
in the Pyrenees. His warriors, taken by surprise in the narrow 
ravine and crushed by rocks rolled down upon them from 
above, could make little resistance, and the rear column, with 
all the plunder gathered in Spain, fell into the enemy's hands. 
Here was slain the famous paladin, Roland, the Count of Brit- 
tany, who became the theme of poets down to the time of 
Ariosto. Charlemagne was so infuriated by his defeat that he 
hanged the Duke of Aquitaine, on the charge of treachery, 
because his territory included apart of the lands of the Basques. 

Upon the heels of this disaster came the news that the 
Saxons had again arisen, under the lead of Wittekind, des- 
troyed their churches, murdered the priests, and carried fire 
and sword to the very walls of Cologne and Coblentz. Charle- 
magne sent his best troops, by forced marches, in advance of 
his coming, but he was not able to take the field until tlie 
following spring. During 779 and a part of 780, after much 
labor and many battles, he seemed to have subdued the stub- 
born race, the most of whom accepted Christian baptism for 
the third time. Charlemagne thereupon went to Italy once 
more, in order to restore order among the Lougobards, whose 
local chiefs were becoming restless in his absence. His two 
young sons, Pippin and Ludwig were crowned by Pope Adrian 
as kings of Longobardia, or Lombardy (which then embraced 
the greater part of Northern and Central Italy), and Aqui- 
taine. 



What did Charlemagne accomplish in Spain? "What became of the coi>- 
quered territory? What happened on his return to France? Who was slain 
at Eoncesvalles ? "What act did Charlemagne commit? What new trouble 
followed? How did Charlemagne meet it? When did he restore order? What 
occured during his next visit to Italy? 



118 SLAUGHTEK OF THE SAXONS. [iSS. 

After his return to Germany, he convoked a parliament, 
or popular assembly at Paderborn, in 782, partly in order to 
give the Saxons a stronger impression of the power of the 
Empire. The people seemed quiet, and he was deceived by 
their bearing; for, after he had left them to return to the 
Rhine, they rose again, headed by \Yittekind, who had been 
for some years a fugitive, in Denmark, Three of Charlemagne's 
chief officials, who immediately hastened to the scene of trouble 
with such troops as they could collect, met Wittekind in the 
Teutoburger Forest, not far from the field where Varus and 
his legions were destroyed. A similar fate awaited them : the 
Frank army was so completely cut to pieces that but few es- 
caped to tell the tale. 

Charlemagne marched immediately into the Saxon land; 
the rebels dispersed at his approach and Wittekind again be- 
came a fugitive. The Saxon nobles humbly renewed their sub- 
mission, and tried to throw the w^iole responsibility of the re- 
bellion upon NVittekind. Charlemagne was not satisfied: he 
had been mortified in his pride as a monarch, and for once he 
cast aside his usual moderation and prudence. He demanded 
that 4500 Saxons, no doubt the most prominent among the 
people, should be given up to him, and then ordered them all 
to be beheaded on the same day. This deed of blood, instead 
of intimidating the Saxons, provoked them to fury. They 
arose as one man, and in 783 defeated Charlemagne near Det- 
mold. He retreated to Paderborn, received reinforcements, 
and was enabled to venture a second battle, in which he was 
victorious. He remained for two years longer in Thiiringia 
and Saxony, during which time he undertook a winter campaign, 
for which the people were not prepared. By the summer of 
785, the Saxons, finding their homes destroyed and themselves 
rapidly diminishing in numbers, yielded to the mercy of the 
conqueror. Wittekind, who, the legend says, had stolen in 
disguise into Charlemagne's camp, was so impressed by the 
bearing of the king and the pomp of the religious services, 



What assembly did he convoke, when, and -why? How did the Saxons 
behave? "What happened to Charlemagne's officials? How was he received 
by the Saxons? What revenge did he take? What effect did this produce? 
What was Charlemagne's course? When did the Saxons submit? 



788.] SUBJECTION OF BAVAEIA. 119 

that he also submitted and received baptism. One account 
states that Charlemagne named him Duke of the Saxons and 
was thenceforth his friend; another, that he sank into ob- 
scurity. 

Charlemagne was now free to make another journey to 
Italy, where he suppressed some fresh troubles among the 
Lombards (as we must henceforth style the Longobards) , and 
forced Aragis, the Duke of Benevento, to render his submission. 
Then, for the first time, he turned his attention to the Ba- 
varians, whose Duke, Tassilo, had preserved an armed neu- 
trality during the previous wars, but was suspected of secretly 
conspiring with the Lombards, Byzantines, and even the Avars, 
for help to enable him to throw off the Frank yoke. At a 
general diet of the whole empire, held in Woims in 787, 
Tassilo did not appear, and Charlemagne made this a pretext 
for invading Bavaria. 

Three armies, in Italy, Suabia and Thiiringia, were set in 
motion at the same time, and resistance appeared so hopeless 
that Tassilo surrendered at once. Charlemagne pardoned him 
at first, under stipulations of stricter dependence, but he was 
convicted of conspiracy at a diet held the following year, when 
he and his sons were found guilty and sent into a monastery. 
His dynasty came to an end, and Bavaria was portioned out 
among a number of Frank Counts, the people, nevertheless, 
being allowed to retain their own political institutions. 

The incorporation of Bavaria with the Frank empire 
brought a new task to Charlemagne. The Avars, who had 
gradually extended their rule across the Alps, nearly to the 
Adriatic, were strong and dangerous neighbors. In 791 he 
entered their territory and laid it waste, as far as the river 
Raab; then, having lost all his horses on the march, he was 
obliged to return. At home, a new trouble awaited him. His 
son. Pippin, whom he had installed as king of Lombardy, was 
discovered to be at the head of a conspiracy to usurp his own 
throne. Pippin was terribly flogged, and then sent into a 



What is said of Wittekind ? What hecame of him ? What was Cliarle- 
magne's next movement? Of what was Tassilo suspected? What measures 
were taken against him? What was his final fate? How was Bavaria dis- 
posed of? What were the events of the march against the Avars? 



120 CHAELEMAGNe's conquests in the NOETH. [798. 

monastery for the rest of his days ; his fellow-conspirators 
were executed. 

When Charlemagne applied his system of military conscrip- 
tion to the Saxons, to recruit his army before renewing the 
war with the Avars, they rose once more in rebellion, slew his 
agents, burned the churches, and drove out the priests, who 
luid made themselves hated by their despotism and by claim- 
ing a tenth part of the produce of the land. Charlemagne 
was thus obliged to subdue them and to fight the Avars , at 
the same time. The double war lasted until 796, when the 
residence of the Avar Khan, with the intrenched "ring" or 
fort, containing all the treasures amassed by the tribe during 
the raids of two hundred years, was captured. All the country, 
as far eastward as the rivers Theiss and Raab, was wasted and 
almost depopulated. The remnant of the Avars acknowledged 
themselves Frank subjects, but for greater security, Charle- 
magne established Bavarian colonies in the fertile land along 
the Danube. The latter formed a province, called the East- 
Mark, which became the foundation upon which Austria (the 
East-kingdom) afterwards rose. 

The Saxons were subjected — or seemed to be — about the 
same time. Many of the people retreated into Holstein, which 
was then called North -Albingia; but Charlemagne allied himself 
with a branch of the Slavonic Wends, defeated them there, 
and took possession of their territory. He built fortresses at 
Halle, Magdeburg, and Blichen, near Hamburg, colonized 
10,000 Saxons among the Franks, and replaced them by an 
equal number of the latter. Then he established Christianity 
for the fifth time, by ordering tjjat all who failed to present 
themselves for baptism should be put to death. The indomit- 
able spirit of the people still led to occasional outbreaks, but 
these became weaker and weaker, and finally ceased as the 
new faith struck deeper root. 

In the year 799, Pope Leo HI. suddenly appeared in 



What family trouble befell Charlemagne, and how was it settled? What 
were the acts of the Saxons? What was the double war, and how long did 
it last? What was Charlemagne's success against the Avars? What became 
of their country? What was the new province called, and what grew out of 
it? Of what northern province did Charlemagne get possession? What 
fortresses did he build? How did he establish Christianity? 



800.] CHAKLEMAGNE CHOWNED ROMAN EMPEEOR. 121 

Charlemagne's camp at Paderborn, a fugitive from a con- 
spiracy of the Roman nobles, by which his life was threatened. 
He was received with all possible honors, and after some time 
spent in secret councils, was sent back to Rome with a strong 
escort. In the autumn of the following year, Charlemagne 
followed him. A civil and ecclesiastical assembly was held at 
Rome, and pronounced the Pope free from the charges made 
against him; then (no doubt according to previous agreement) 
on Christmas-Day, 800, Leo III. crowned Charlemagne as Ro- 
man Emperor, in the Cathedral of St. Peter's. The people 
greeted him with cries of ^'Life and victory to Carolo Augusto, 
crowned by God, the great, the peace-bringing Emperor of the 
Romans ! " 

If, by this step, the Pope seemed to forget the aspirations 
of the Church for temporal power, on the other hand he ren- 
dered himself for ever independent of his nominal subjection to 
the Byzantine Emperors. For Charlemagne, the new dignity 
gave his rule its full and final authority. The people, in whose 
traditions the grandeur of the old Roman Empire was still 
kept alive, now beheld it renewed in their ruler and themselves. 
Charlemagne stood at the head of an Empire which was to 
include all Christendom, and to imitate, in its civil organiza- 
tion, the spiritual rule of the Church. On the one side were 
kingdoms, duchies, countships and the communities of the 
people, all subject to him; on the other side, bishoprics, mon- 
asteries and their dependencies, churches and individual souls, 
subject to the Pope. The latter acknowledged the Emperor 
as his temporal sovereign : the Emperor acknowledged the Pope 
as his spiritual sovereign. The idea was grand, and at that 
time did not seem impossible to fulfil; but the further course 
of history shows how hostile the two principles may become, 
when they both grasp at the same power. 

The Greek Emperors at Constantinople were not strong 
enough to protest against this bestowal of a dignity wliich 



Who took refuge in his camp , when , and why ? How was he treated? 
When and where was Charlemagne crowned? How was he saluted? What 
did the Pope gain by this step? What was Charlemagne's idea of empire? 
How were the two powers divided? How did the Emperor and Pope acknow- 
ledge each other? 



122 THE EXTENT OF HIS EMPIEE. [siO. 

tliey claimed for themselves. A long series of negotiations 
followed, the result of which was that the Emperor Nicephorus, 
in 812, acknowledged Charlemagne's title. The latter, im- 
mediately after his coronation in Rome , drew up a new oath 
of allegiance, which he required to be taken by the whole 
male population of the Empire. About this time, he entered 
into friendly relations with the famous Caliph, Haroun Al- 
raschid of Bagdad (of the ''Arabian Nights" ). They sent em- 
bassies, bearing magnificent presents, to each other's courts, 
and at Charlemagne's request, Haroun took the holy places in 
Palestine under his special protection , and allowed the Chris- 
tians to visit them. 

With the Saracens in Spain, however, the Emperor had 
constant trouble. They made repeated incursions across the 
Ebro, into the Spanish Mark, and ravaged the shores of 
Majorca, Minorca and Corsica, which belonged to the Frank 
Empire. Moreover, the extension of his frontier on the east 
brought Charlemagne into collision with the Slavonic tribes in 
the territory now belonging to Prussia beyond the Elbe, Sax- 
ony and Bohemia. He easily defeated them, but could not 
check their plundering and roving propensities. In the year 
808, Holstein as far as the Elbe was invaded by the Danish 
king, Gottfried, who, after returning home with much booty, 
commenced the construction of that line of defence along the 
Eider river, called the DannciverJc, which exists to this day. 

Charlemagne had before this conquered and annexed Fries- 
land. His Empire thus included all France, Switzerland and 
Germany, stretching eastward along the Danube to Presburg, 
with Spain to the Ebro, and Italy to the Garigliano river, the 
later boundary between Rome and Naples. There were no 
wars serious enoue^h to call him into the field during? the latter 
years of his reign, and he devoted his time to the encourage- 
ment of learning and the arts. He established schools, fostered 
ne^ branches of industry, and sought to build up the higher 



"What course was taken by the Greek Emperor? What did Charlemagne 
demand of liis subjects? With whom did he establish friendly relations? 
What favor did the Caliph grant? What further trouble did the Saracens 
give? What other tribes were not subdued? When was the Danish invasion? 
What other land had Charlemagne conquered? What were the boundaries of 
Lis Empire? To what did he devote the last years of his reign? 



81 O.J 



ENCOUEAGEMENT OF LEAKNING. 



123 



civilization which follows peace and order. He was very fond 
of the German language, and by his orders a complete collec- 
tion was made of the songs and poetical legends of the people. 
Forsaking Paris, which had been the Frank capital for nearly 
three centuries, he removed his court to Aix-la-Chapelle and 
Ingelheim, near the Rhine, founded the city of Frankfort on 
the Main, and converted, before he died, all that war-wasted 
region into a peaceful aiid populous country. 




CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS READEB. 



No ruler before Charlemagne, and none for at least four 
centuries after him , did so much to increase and perpetuate 
the learning of his time. During his meals, some one always 
read aloud to him out of old chronicles or theological works. 
He spoke Latin fluently, and had a good knowledge of Greek. 
In order to become a good writer, he carried his tablets about 
with him, and even slept with them under his pillow. . The 
men whom he assembled at his Court were the most intelligent 



What did he do for education and literature? Where did he prefer to 
reside? What was Charlemagne's knowledge? How did he endeavor to ia- 
crease it? 



124 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. [siO. 

of that age. His chaplain and chief counsellor was Alcuin, an 
English monk, and a man of great learning. His secretary, 
Einhard (or Eginhard) wrote a history of the Emperor's life 
and times. Among his other friends were Paul Diaconus , a 
learned Lombard, 'and the chronicler, Bishop Turpin. These 
men formed, with Charlemagne, a literary society, which held 
regular meetings to discuss matters of science, politics and 
literature. « 

Under Charlemagne, the political institutions of the Mero- 
vingian kings, as well as those which existed among the Ger- 
man races, were materially changed. As far as possible , he 
set aside the Dukes , each of whom , up to that time , was the 
head of a tribe or division of the people , and broke up their 
half-independent states into districts, governed by Counts. 
These districts were divided into " hundreds ," as in the old 
Germanic times, each in charge of a noble, who every week 
acted as judge in smaller civil or criminal cases. The Counts, 
in conjunction with from seven to twelve magistrates, held 
monthly courts wherein cases which concerned life, freedom or 
landed property were decided. They were also obliged to 
furnish a certain number of soldiers when called upon. The 
same obligation rested upon the archbishops, bishops, and 
abbots of the monasteries, all of whom, together with the 
Counts, were called Vassals of the Empire. 

The free men, in case of war, were compelled to serve as 
horsemen or foot-soldiers, according to their wealth, either 
three or five of the very poorest furnishing one well-equipped 
man. The soldiers were not only not paid, but each was 
obliged to bear his own expenses; so the burden fell very 
heavily upon this class of the people. In order to escape it, 
large numbers of the poorer freemen voluntarily became de- 
pendents of the nobility or clergy, who in return equipped 
and supported them. The national assemblies were still 
annually held , but the people , in becoming dependents , gra- 



What learned men were assembled at his Court ? "What society did they 
form? What changes did he introduce in civil government? How were the 
districts and hundreds governed? What were the nobles and priests obliged 
to do? What were they styled? What service was required of the free men? 
Wljy was this a burden to them? What did they do, to escape it? 



8io»] chaklemagne's power. 125 

dually lost their ancient authority , ^nd their votes ceased to 
control the course of events. The only part they played in 
the assemblies was to bring tribute to the Emperor, to whom 
they paid no taxes, and whose court was kept up partly from 
their offerings and partly from the revenues of the " domains" 
or crown-lands. Thus, while Charlemagne introduced through- 
out his whole empire a unity of government and an order un- 
known before; while he anticipated Prussia in making all his 
people liable , at any time , to military service , on the other 
hand he was slowly and unconsciously changing the free Ger- 
mans into a race of lords and serfs. 

It is not likely, either, that the people themselves saw the 
tendency of his government. Their respect and love for him 
increased, as the comparative peace of the Empire allowed him 
to turn to interests which more immediately concerned their 
lives. In his ordinary habits he was as simple as they. His 
daughters spun and wove the flax for his plain linen garments ; 
personally he looked after his orchards and vegetable gardens, 
set the schools an example by learning to improve his own 
reading and writing, treated high and low with equal frank- 
ness and heartiness, and, even in his old age, surpassed all 
around him in feats of strength or endurance. There seemed 
to be no serfdom in bowing to a man so magnificently en- 
dowed by nature and so favored by fortune. 

One event came to embitter his last days. The Scandi- 
navian Goths, now known as Norsemen, were beginning to 
build their "sea-dragons" and sally forth on voyages of plunder 
and conquest. They laid waste the shores of Holland and 
Northern France, and the legend says that Charlemagne burst 
into tears of rage and shame, on perceiving his inability to 
subdue them or prevent their incursions. One of his last acts 
was to order the construction of a fleet at Boulogne, but when 
it was ready the Norse Vikings suddenly appeared in the 
Mediterranean and ravaged the southern coast of France. 



What effect had this on their political power? What part did they play 
in the national assemblies? What was the general effect of Charlemagne's 
system of government? Were tlie people aware of this? What habits of life 
made Charlemagne popular? What event troubled the close of his reign? 
How did it affect him? W^hat did he order done? 



126 



END OF HIS REIGN. 



[813. 



Charlemagne began too late to make the Germans either a 
naval or a commercial people: his attempt to unite the Main 
and Danube by a canal also failed, but the very design shows 
his wise foresight and his energy. 




CATHEDEAL OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLB. 



Towards the end of the year 813, feeling his death ap- 
proaching, he called an Imperial Diet together at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, to recognize his son Ludwig as his successor. After this 



What great work did he attempt? When did he call a Diet for the last 
time, aod why? 



814.] LUBWIG THE PIOUS. X27 

was done, he conducted Ludwig to the Cathedral, made him 
vow to be just and God-fearing in his rule, and then bade him 
take the Imperial crown from the altar and set it upon his 
head. On the 28th of January, 814, Charlemagne died, and 
was buried in the Cathedral, where his ashes still repose. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE EMPEKOES OF THE CAEOLINGIAN LINE. (814 911.) 

Character of Ludwig the Pious.— His Subjection to the Priests. — Injury to 
German Literature.— Division of the Empire.— Treatment of his Nephew, 
Bernard.— Ludwig's Remorse.— -The Empress Judith and her Son. — Eevolt 
of Ludwig's Sons. — His Abdication and Death. — Compact of Karl the Bald 
and Ludwig the German. — The French and German Languages.— The Low- 
German. — Lothar's Eesistance. — The Partition of Yerdun. — Germany and 
France separated. — The Norsemen. — Internal Troubles.— Ludwig the Ger- 
man's Sons. — His Death. — ^Division of Germany. — Karl the Fat. — His Cow- 
ardice.— The Empire restored. — Karl's Death. — Duke Arnulf made King. 
— He defeats the Norsemen and Bohemians.— His Favors to the Church. 
— The "Isidorian Decretals". — Arnulf Crowned Emperor.— His Death. — 
Ludwig the Child. — Invasions of the Magyars. — End of the Carolingian 
Line in Germany. 

The last act of Charlemagne's life in ordering the manner 
of his son's coronation, — which was imitated, a thousand years 
afterwards , by Napoleon , who , in the presence of the Pope, 
Pius YIL , himself set the crown upon his own head — showed 
that he designed keeping the Imperial power independent of 
that of the Church. But his son, Ludwig , was already a sub- 
missive and willing dependent of Rome. During his reign as 
king of Aquitaine he had covered the land with monasteries : 
he was the pupil of monks, and his own inclination was for a 
monastic life. But at Charlemagne's death he was the only 
legitimate heir to the throne. Being therefore obliged to 
wear the Imperial purple, he exercised his sovereignty chiefly 



"What commands did he give to his son? W^hen did he die, and where is 
he buried? 

What was Charlemagne's last act, and what did it indicate? How was ho 
mistaken? What was Ludwig's course in Aquitaine? 



1^8 HIS SUBMISSION TO THE CHUBCH. [siG. 

in tlie interest of the Church. His first act was to send to the 
Pope the treasures amassed by his father; his next, to sur- 
round himself with prelates and priests , who soon learned to 
control his policy. He was called "Ludwig the Pious," but in 
those days, when so many worldly qualities were necessary to 
the ruler of the Empire , the title was hardly one of praise. 
He appears to have been of a kindly nature , and many of his 
acts show that he meant to be just: the weakness of his 
character, however, too often made his good intentions of no 
avail. 

It was a great misfortune for Germany that Lud wig's 
piety took the form of hostility to all learning except of a 
theological nature. So far as he was able, he undid the great 
work of education commenced by Charlemagne. The schools 
were given entirely into the hands of the priests, and the 
character of the instruction was changed. He inflicted an irre- 
parable loss on all after ages by destroying the collection of 
songs, ballads and legends of the German people, whicli Charle- 
magne had taken such pains to gather and preserve. It is 
not believed that a single copy escaped destruction, although 
some scholars suppose that a fragment of the "Song of Hilde- 
brand," written in the eighth century, may have formed part 
of the collection. In the year 816, Ludwig was visited in 
Rheims by the Pope, Stephen IV\, who again crowned him Em- 
peror in the Cathedral, and thus restored the spiritual au- 
thority which Charlemagne had tried to set aside. Ludwig's 
attempts to release the estates belonging to the Bishops, mon- 
asteries and priesthood from the payment of taxes , and the 
obligation to furnish soldiers in case of war, created so much 
dissatisfaction among the nobles and people, that, at a diet 
held the following year, he was summoned to divide the 
government of the Empire among his three sons. He resisted 
at first, but was finally forced to consent : his eldest son, Lothar, 
was crowned as Co-Emperor of the Franks, Ludwig as king 
of Bavaria, and Pippin, his third son, as king of Aquitaine. 



How did he exercise his sovereignty? What were his first acts? What 
was lie culled? What was his nature? What was the most unfortunate form 
of Ludwig's piety? What great loss did he inflict on Germany? When was 
he again crowned, where, and by whom? What did he attempt to do? Whut 
was the result? How were his sons crowned? 



822.] ludwig's penitence. 129 

In tills division no notice was taken of Bernard, king of 
Lombardy, also a grandson of Charlemagne. The latter at 
once entered into a conspiracy with certain Frank nobles, to 
have his rights recognized; but, while preparing for war, he 
was induced, under promises of his personal safety, to visit 
the Emperor's court. There, after having revealed the names 
of his fellow-conspirators, he was treacherously arrested, and 
his eyes put out; in consequence of which treatment he died. 
The Empress, Irmingarde, died soon afterwards, and Ludwig 
was so overcome both by grief for her loss and remorse for 
having caused the death of his nephew, that he was with great 
difficulty restrained from abdicating and retiring into a mon- 
astery. It was not in the interest of the priesthood to lose 
so powerful a friend, and they finally persuaded him to marry 
again. 

His second wife was Judith, daughter of Wei f, a Bavarian 
count, to whom he was united in 819. Although this gave 
him another son, Karl, afterwards known as Karl (Charles) the 
Bald, he appears to have found very little peace of mind. At 
a diet held in 822, at iVttigny, in France, he appeared publicly 
in the sackcloth and ashes of a repentant sinner, and made 
open confession of his misdeeds. This act showed his sincerity 
as a man , but in those days it must have greatly diminished 
the reverence which the people felt for him, as their Emperor. 
The next year his son Lothar, who, after Bernard's death, be- 
came also King of Lombardy, visited Borne and was recrowned 
by the Pope. For awhile, Lothar made himself very popular 
by seeking out and correcting abuses in the administration of 
the laws. 

During the first fifteen years of Ludwig's reign, the bound- 
aries of the empire were constantly disturbed by invasions of 
the Danes, the Slavonic tribes in Prussia, and the Saracens in 
Spain, while the Basques and Bretons became turbulent within 
the realm. All these revolts or invasions were suppressed ; the 
eastern frontier was not only held but extended, and the mili- 



"Who else claimed a share? What did he do? What was his fate? What 
effect had this act on Ludwig? What course did the priesthood take? To 
whom was he married, and when? What public repentance did he make, 
when and where? What were Lothar's acts in Italy? By whom was the 
Empire disturbed? How long? 



130 REBELLION OF LUDWIG's SONS. [833. 

tary power of the Frank empire was everywhere recognized 
and feared. The Saxons and Frisians, who had been treated 
with great mildness by Ludwig , gave no further trouble ; in 
fact, the whole population of the Empire became pea'ceablo 
and orderly in proportion as the higher civilization encouraged 
by Charlemagne was developed among them. 

The remainder of Ludwig's reign might have been un- 
troubled, but for a family difficulty. The Empress Judith de- 
manded that her son, Karl, should also have a kingdom, like 
his three step-brothers. An Imperial Diet was therefore cal- 
led together at Worms, in 829, and, in spite of fierce opposi- 
tion, a new kingdom was formed out of parts of Burgundy, 
Switzerland and Suabia. The three sons, Lothar, Pippin and 
Ludwig, acquiesced at first; but when a Spanish count, Bernard, 
was appointed regent during Karl's minority, the two former 
began secretly to conspire against their father. They took 
him captive in France, and endeavored, but in vain, to force 
him to retire into a monastery. The sympathies of the people 
were with him, and by their help he was able, the following 
year, to regain his authority, and force his sons to submit. 

Ludwig, however, manifested his preference for his last 
son, Karl, so openly that in 833, his three other sons united 
against him, and a war ensued which lasted nearly five years. 
Finally, when the two armies stood face to face, on a plain 
near Colmar, in Alsatia, and a bloody battle between father 
and sons seemed imminent, the Pope, Gregory IV., suddenly 
made his appearance. He ofi'ered his services as a mediator, 
went to and fro, and at last treacherously carried all the Em- 
peror's chief supporters over to the camp of the sons. Ludwig, 
then sixty years old and broken in strength and spirit, was 
forced to surrender. The people gave the name of "The Field 
of Lies" to the scene of this event. 

The old Emperor was compelled by his sons to give up his 
sword, to appear as a penitent in Church, and to undergo such 



What was Ludwig's success ? What was the attitude of the Saxons and 
Frisians? What made the country more peaceful? What did the Empress 
demand? What was granted? How did Ludwig's other sons act? How did 
they treat tlieir father? What foUowed ? What war next broke out, when 
and why? Where did the armies meet? Who appeared on the field? What 
was his behaviour, and its result? What name was given to the place? 



132 THE OATH OF KAKL AND LUDWIG. [841. 

other degradations, that the sympathies of the people were 
again aroused in his favor. They rallied to his support from 
all sides : his authority was restored, Lothar, the leader of the 
rebellion, fled to Italy, Pippin had died shortly before, and 
Ludwig proffered his submission. The old man now had a 
prospect of quiet; but the machinations of the Empress Judith 
on behalf of her son, Karl, disturbed his last years. His son 
Ludwig was marching against him for the second time, when 
he died, in 840, on an island in the Rhine, near Ingelheim. 

The death of Ludwig the Pious was the signal for a suc- 
cession of fratricidal wars. His youngest son, Karl the Bald 
first united his interests with those of his eldest step-brother, 
Lothar, but he soon went over to Ludwig's side, while Lothar 
allied himself with the sons of Pippin, in Aquitaine. A ter- 
rific battle was fought near Auxerre , in France , in the sum- 
mer of 841. Lothar was defeated, and Ludwig and Karl then 
determined to divide the Empire between them. The follow- 
ing winter they came together, with their nobles and armies, 
near Strasburg, and vowed to keep faith with each other 
thenceforth. The language of France and Germany, even 
among the descendants of the original Franks , was no longer 
the same, and the oath which was drawn up for the occasion 
was pronounced by Karl in German to the army of Ludwig, 
and by Ludwig in French to the army of Karl. The text of 
it has been preserved, and it is a very interesting illustration 
of the two languages, as they were spoken a thousand years 
ago. We will quote the opening phrases, for the interest of 
comparing them with modern French and German: 

'Lvj)Vf^iG.( French). Vtq Deo amur et (pro) Christian poblo et nostro 
Karl. (German). In Godes miuna ind (in tlies) Christianes folches ind unset 
English. In God's love and (that of the) Christian folk and our 

Ltjdwig. comun salvament,— dist di in avant,— in quant 

KAEii. bedhero gehaltnissi ,— fon thesemo dage framordes, — so frara so 
English, mutual preservation, — from this day forth, — as long as 



What was the Emperor compelled to do? What was the consequence? 
Who disturbed his last years? When, and under wliat circumstances, did he 
die? What followed his death? Wlien and how did the wars terminate? 
What compact was made? IIow had tlie languages changed? What does the 
oath illustrate? 



843.] THE PARTITION OF VERDUN. 133 

LuDwiG. Deug savir et podir me dunat, &c. 

KARii. mir God gewiczi ind mahd furgibit a 

English. to me God knowledge and might gives, a 

It is very easy to see, from this slight specimen, how much 
the language of the Franks had been modified by the Gallic- 
Latin, and how much of the original tongue (taking the Gothic 
Bible of Ulfila as an evidence of its character) has been re- 
tained in German and English. About the same time there 
was written in the Low-German, or Saxon dialect, a Gospel 
narrative in verse, called the Heliand ("Saviour"), many 
limes of which are almost identical with early English ; as the 
following : 

Slogun cald isarn 
they drove cold iron 

hardo mit hamuron 
hard with hammers 

thuru is hendi enti thuni is fuoti , 
through his hands and through his feet; 
is blod ran an ertha. 
hia "blood ran on earth. 

Tbis separation of the languages is a sign of the dif- 
ference in national character which now split asunder the 
great empire of Charlemagne. Lothar, after the solemn al- 
liance between Karl the Bald and Ludwig, resorted to des- 
perate measures. He ofiered to give the Saxons their old laws 
and even to allow them to return to their pagan faith, if they 
would support his claims ; he invited the Norsemen to Belgium 
and Northern France; and, by retreating towards Italy when 
his brothers approached him in force, and then returning when 
an opportunity favored, he disturbed and wasted the best 
portions of the Empire. Finally the Bishops intervened , and 
after a long time spent in negotiations, the three rival brothers 
met in 843 , and agreed to the famous "Partition of Yerdun" 
(so called from Verdun, near Metz, where it was signed), 
by which the realm of Charlemagne was divided among them. 

How do the two languages compare with the Gothic? What other work 
was written at the time? What language does it most resemble? Give some 
words as examples. What does the difference of the languages indicate? To 
what measures did Lothar resort? Who intervened, and when did the brothers 
meet? To what did they agree 



134 



LUDWia THE GERMAN. 



[S43. 



Lothar, as the eldest, received Italy, together with a long, 
narrow strip of territory extending to the North Sea, in- 
cluding part of Burgundy, Switzerland, Eastern Belgium and 

Holland. All west 
of this, embracing 
the greater part of 
France , was given 
to Karl the Bald; 
all east, with a strip 
of territory west of 
the Rhine, from 
Basle to Mayence, 
"for the sake of its 
wine," as the docu- 
ment stated , be- 
came the kingdom 
of Ludwig, who was 
thenceforth called 
"The German." The 
last-named also re- 
ceived Eastern 
Switzerland and 
Bavaria,to the Alps. 
This division was 
almost as arbitrary 
and unnatural as 
that which Pippin 
the Short attempted 
to make. Neither 
KarPs nor Lud- 
wig's shares in- 
cluded all the 
French or German 
territory ; while Lo- 
thar^s was a long, narrow slice cut out of botli, and attached to 
Italy, where a new race and language were already developed 




liUDWIG THE GERMAN. 



What territory did Lothar receive? What Karl the Bald? What Ludwig, 
and how was he named? What additional territory did ho get? What waa 
tho nature of this division ? 



643.] SEPARATION OF GEEMANY AND FEANCE. 135 

out of the mixture of Romans , Goths and Lombards. In fact, 
it became necessary to invent a name for the northern part 
of Lothar's dominions, and that portion between Burgundy 
and Holland was called, after him, Lotharingia. As Lothrin- 
gen in German, and Lorraine in French, the name still re- 
mains in existence. 

Each of the three monarchs received unrestricted sway 
over his realm. They agreed, however, upon a common line of 
policy, in the interest of the dynasty, and admitted the right 
of inheritance to each other's sovereignty , in the absence of 
direct heirs. The Treaty of Verdun, therefore, marks the be- 
ginning of Germany and France, as distinct nationalities ; and 
now, after following the Germanic races over the greater part 
of Europe for so many centuries, we come back to recommence 
their history on the soil where we first found them. In fact, 
the word Deutsche ^'German," signifying of the peoi:)le^ now 
first came into general use, to designate the language and the 
races — Franks, Alemanni, Bavarians, Thiiringians, Saxons , &c. 
— under Lud wig's rule. There was, as yet, no political unity 
among these races; they were reciprocally jealous, and often 
hostile; but, by contrast with the inhabitants of France and 
Italy, they felt their blood-relationship as never before, and 
a national spirit grew up, of a narrower but more natural 
character than that which Charlemagne endeavored to es- 
tablish. 

Internal struggles awaited both the Roman Emperor, 
Lothar, and the Frank king, Karl the Bald. The former was 
obliged to suppress revolts in Provence and Italy; the latter, 
in Brittany and Aquitaine , while the Spanish Mark , beyond 
the Pyrenees, passed out of his hands. Ludwig the German 
inherited a long peace at home, but a succession of wars with 
the Wends and Bohemians along his eastern frontier. The 
Norsemen came down upon his coasts, destroyed Hamburg, 
and sailed up the Elbe with 600 vessels, burning and plun- 



What change had taken place in Italy? How was part of Lothar's Em- 
pire called? What are the modern names? Into what agreement did the 
three kings enter? What does the Treaty of Verdun indicate? What new 
designation hegan to be used? What change in feeling took place? What 
troubles came upon Lothar? What upon Karl the Eald? What was Ludwig 
tlie German's fortune? 
1 



136 TROUBLE IN FRANCE. [858. 

dering wherever they went. The necessity of keeping an army 
almost constantly in the field gave the clergy and nobility an 
opportunity of exacting better terms for their support; the 
independent Dukedoms, suppressed by Charlemagne, were gra- 
dually re-established, and thus Ludwig diminished his own 
power while protecting his territory from invasion. 

The Emperor, Lothar, soon discovered that he had made 
a bad bargain. His long and narrow empire was most dif- 
ficult to govern, and in 855, weary with his annoyances and 
his endless marches to and fro, he abdicated and retired into 
a monastery, where he died within a week. The empire was 
divided between his three sons: Ludwig received Italy and 
was crowned by the Pope ; to Karl was given the territory be- 
tween the Rhone, the Alps and the Mediterranean, and to 
Lothar IL the portion extending from the Rhone to the North 
Sea. When the last of these died, in 869, Ludwig the Ger- 
man and Karl the Bald divided his territory, the line running 
between Verdun and Metz, then along the Yosges, and ter- 
minating at the Rhine near Basle, — almost precisely the same 
boundary as that which France has been forced to accept 
in 1871. 

But the conditions of the oath taken byt' e two kings in 842 
were not observed by either. Karl the Bald was a tyrannical 
and unpopular sovereign, and when he failed in preventing 
the Norsemen from ravaging all Western France, the nobles 
determined to set him aside and invite Ludwig to take his 
place. The latter consented, marched into France with a large 
army, and was hailed as king; but when his army returned 
home, and he trusted to the promised support of the Frank 
nobles, he found that Karl had repurchased their allegiance, 
and there was no course left to him but to retreat across the 
Rhine. The trouble was settled by a meeting of the two kings, 
which took place at Coblentz, in 860. 

Ludwig the German had also, like his father, serious 



Who invaded his territory, and where? What result followed his wars? 
What was the end of Lothar's reign? How was hia empire divided? When 
did Lothar II. die? What became of his territory ? What was the boundary 
between Ludwig and Karl? How did the two observe their oath? What 
happened to Karl the Bald? What was Ludwig's experience in France? 
When and how was the matter settled? 



376.] DEATH OF LUDWIG THE GEEMAN. 137 

trouble with his sons, Karlmann and Liidvvig. He had made 
the former Duke of Carinthia, but erelong discovered that he 
had entered into a conspiracy with Rastitz, king of tlie Mo- 
ravian Slavonians. Karlmann was summoned to Regensburg 
(Ratisbon), which was then Ludwig's capital, and was finally 
obliged to lead an army against his secret ally, Rastitz, who 
was conquered. A new war with Zwentebold, king of Bohemia, 
who was assisted by the Sorbs, Wends, and other Slavonic tribes 
along the Elbe, broke out soon afterwards. Karlmann led his 
father's forces against the enemy, and after a struggle of four 
years forced Bohemia, in 873, to become tributary to Germany. 

In 875, the Emperor, Ludwig II. (Lothar's son), who ruled 
in Italy, died without heirs. Karl the Bald and Ludwig the 
German immediately called their troops into the field and 
commenced the march to Italy, in order to divide the inhe- 
ritance or fight for its sole possession. Ludwig sent his sons, 
but their uncle, Karl the Bald, was before them. He was 
acknowledged by the Lombard nobles at Pavia, and crowned 
in Rome by the Pope, before it could be prevented. Ludwig 
determined upon an instant invasion of France, but in the 
midst of the preparations he died at Frankfort, in 876. He 
was 71 years old; as a child he had sat on the knees of Charle- 
magne; as an independent king of Germany, he had reigned 
36 years, and with him the intelligence, prudence and power 
which had distinguished the Carolingian line came to an end. 

Again the kingdom was divided among three sons, Karl- 
mann, Ludwig the Younger, and Karl the Fat ; and again there 
were civil wars. Karl the Bald made haste to invade Germany 
before the brothers were in a condition to oppose him ; but he 
was met by Ludwig the Younger and terribly defeated, near 
Andernach on the Rhine. The next year he died, leaving one 
son, Ludwig the Stammerer, to succeed him. 

The brothers, in accordance with a treaty made before 
their father's death, thus divided Germany: Karlmann took 
Bavaria, Carinthia, the provinces on the Danube, and the half- 

What other trouble had Ludwig? In what was his son, Karlmann, en- 
gaged? What was he compelled to do? What new war followed, when and 
how did it end? What happened in 875? What immediately followed this 
event? What was Karl's success? When and were did Ludwig die? De- 
ecribe his reign. What followed his death ? What was the end of Karl the 
Bald? 



138 INVASION OF THE NORSEMEN. [882. 

sovereignty over Bohemia and Moravia ; Ludwig the Younger 
became king over all Northern and Central Germany, leaving 
Suabia (formerly Alemannia) for Karl the Fat. Karlmann's 
first act was to take possession of Italy, which acknowledged 
liis rule. He was soon afterwards struck with apoplexy, and 
died in 880. Karl the Fat had already crossed the Alps; he 
forced the Lombard nobles to accept him , and was crowned 
Emperor at Rome, as Karl III., in 881. Meanwhile the Ger- 
mans had recognized Ludwig the Younger as Karlmann's heir, 
and had given to Arnulf, the latter's illegitimate son, the 
Duchy of Carinthia. 

Ludwig tlie Younger died, childless, in 882, and thus Ger- 
many and Italy became one empire under Kai-l the Fat. By 
this time Friesland and Holland were suffering from the in- 
vasions of the Norsemen, wlio had built a strong camp on the 
banks of the Meuse, and were beginning to threaten Germany. 
Karl marched against them , but , after a siege of some weeks, 
he shamefully purchased a truce by giving them ten-itory in 
Holland, and large sums in gold and silver, and by marrying 
a princess of the Carolingian blood to Gottfried , their chief- 
tain. They then sailed down the Meuse, with 200 vessels 
laden with plunder. 

All classes of the Germans were filled mth rage and shame, 
at this disgrace. The Dukes and Princes who were building 
up their local governments profited by the state of affairs , to 
strengthen their power. Karl was called to Italy to defend 
the Pope against the Saracens , and when he returned to Ger- 
many in 884 , he found a Count Hugo almost independent in 
Lorraine , the Norsemen in possession of the Rhine nearly as 
far as Cologne, and Arnulf of Carinthia engaged in a fierce 
war with Zwentebold, king of Bohemia. Karl turned his forces 
against the last of these, subdued him, and then, with the help 
of the Frisians, expelled the Norsemen. The two crowned 
sons of Karl the Bald, Ludwig and Karlmann, died about this 
time, and the only remaining son , Charles (afterwards called 



How did Ludwig's sons divide Germany? What was Karlmann's bis;,tary ? 
What was accomplished by Karl the Fat ? What had tlie Germans done ? 
What was the next event? What new invasion took place? How did Karl 
the Fat meet it? What was the effect of his course? What was the state of 
tilings in Germany, in 884? What successes had Karl? 



867.] ARNULF OF CARINTHIA KING. 139 

the Silly), was still a young child. The Frank nobles there- 
fore offered the throne to Karl the Fat, who accepted it and 
thus restored, for a short time, the Empire of Charlemagne. 

Once more he proved himself shamefully unworthy of the 
power confided to his hands. He suffered Paris to sustain a 
nine months' siege by the Norsemen, before he marched to its 
assistance, and then, instead of meeting the foemen in open 
field, he paid them a heavy ransom for the city and allowed 
them to spend the following winter in Burgundy, and plunder 
the land at their will. The result was a general conspiracy 
against his rule, in Germany as well as in France. At the 
head of it was Bishop Luitward, KarPs Chancellor and con- 
fidential friend, who, being detected, fled to Arnulf in Carin- 
tliia, and instigated the latter to rise in rebellion. Arnulf was 
everywhere victorious: Karl the Fat, deserted by his army 
and the dependent German nobles, was forced, in 887, to resign 
the throne and retire to an estate in Suabia, where he died 
the following year. 

Duke Arnulf, the grandson of Ludwig the German, though 
not legitimately born, now became king of Germany. Being 
accepted at Ratisbon and afterwards at Frankfort by the re- 
presentatives of the people , he was able to keep them united 
under his rule, while the rest of the former Frank Empire be- 
gan to fall to pieces. As early as 879, a new kingdom, called 
Burgundy, or Arelat, from its capital Aries, was formed be- 
tween the Rhone and the Alps; Berengar, the Lombard Duke 
of Friuli, in Italy, usurped the inheritance of the Carolingian line 
there; DukeConrad, a nephew of Ludwig the Pious, established 
the kingdom of Upper Burgundy, embracing a part of Eastern 
France , with Western Switzerland ; and Count Odo of Paris, 
who gallantly defended the city against the Norsemen, was 
chosen king of France by a lar^e party of the nobles. 

King Arnulf, who seems to have possessed as much wis- 
dom as bravery, did not interfere with the pretensions of these 
new rulers, so long as they forbore to trespass on his German 
territory, and he thereby secured the friendship of all. He de- 

What happened in France, at this time? What new power did Karl re- 
ceive? How did he begin to use it? What was the result? Who headed 
the conspiracy? What was the consequence of it? Who became ki::»g of 
Germany? What changes liad taken place in the Frank Empire? 



140 APPEARANCE OF THE MAGYARS. [syo. 

voted himself to the liberation of Germany from the repeated 
invasions of the Danes and Norsemen on the north, and the 
Bohemians on the East. The former had entrenched them- 
selves strongly among the marshes near Louvain , where Ar- 
nulPs best troops, which were cavalry, could not reach them. 
He set an example to his army by dismounting and advancing 
on foot to the attack: the Germans followed with such im- 
petuosity that the Norse camp was taken, and nearly all its 
defenders slaughtered. From that day Germany was free from 
Northern invasion. 

Arnulf next marched against his old enemy, Zwentebold 
(in some histories the name is written Sviafopidlc) of Bohemia. 
This king and his people had recently been converted to Chris- 
tianity by the missionary Methodius, but it had made no 
change in their predatory habits. They were the more easily 
conquered by Arnulf, because the Magyars , a branch of the 
Finnish race who had pressed into Hungary from the East, 
attacked them at the same time. The Magyars were called 
^'Hungarians" by the Germans of that day — as they are at 
present — because they had taken possession of the territory 
which had been occupied by the Huns , more than four cen- 
turies before; but they were a distinct race, resembling the 
Huns only in their fierceness and daring. They were believed 
to be cannibals, who drank the blood and devoured the hearts 
of their slain enemies ; and the panic they created throughout 
Germany was as great as that which went before Attila and 
his barbarian hordes. 

After the subjection of the Bohemians, Arnulf was sum- 
moned to Italy, in the year 894, where he assisted Berengar, 
king of Lombardy, to maintain his power against a rival. He 
then marched against Rudolf, king of Upper Burgundy, who 
had been conspiring against hjin , and ravaged his land. By 
this time J it appears, his personal ambition was excited by 
his successes: he determined to become Emperor, and as a 
means of securing \he favor of the Pope, he granted the most 

What was Arnuira policy? What work did he undertake? "Where were 
the Norsemen? How was Arnulf victorious? Against wliom did he next 
inarch? Wliat had taken place in Bohemia? What circumstance favored Ar- 
Dulf ? Who were the Magyars? What were they believed to be? What im- 
pression did they make? What were ArnulTs next movements? What waa 
the object of his ambition? 



890.] THE "ISIDORIAN DECRETALS.*' 141 

extraordinary privileges to the Church, in Germany. He or- 
dered that all civil officers should execute the orders of the 
clerical tribunals; that excommunication should affect the civil 
rights of those on whom it fell; that matters of dispute be- 
tween clergy and laymen should be decided by the Bishops, 
without calling witnesses, — with other decrees of the same 
character, which practically set the Church above the civil 
authorities. 

The Popes, by this time, had embraced the idea of becom- 
ing temporal sovereigns, and the dissensions among the rulers 
of the Carolingian line already enabled them to secure a power, 
of which the former Bishops of Rome had never dreamed. In 
the early part of the ninth century, the so-called *'Isidorian 
Decretals" (because they bore the name of Bishop Isidor, of 
Seville) came to light. They were forged documents , pur- 
porting to be decrees of the ancient Councils of the Church, 
which claimed for the Bishop of Rome (tlie Pope) the office of 
Vicar of Ciirist, and Vicegerent of God upon earth, with supreme 
power not only over all Bishops, priests and individual souls, 
but also over all civil authorities. The policy of the Papal 
chair was determined by these documents, and several cen- 
turies elapsed before their fictitious character was discovered, 

Arnulf, after these concessions to the Church, went to Italy 
in 895. He found the Pope, Formosus, in the power of a Lom- 
bard prince, whom the former had been compelled, against his 
will, to crown as Emperor. Arnulf took Rome by force of 
arms, liberated the Pope, and in return was crowned Roman 
Emperor. He fell dangerously ill immediately afterwards, 
and it was believed that he had been poisoned. Formosus, 
who died the following year, was declared "accurst" by his 
successor, Stephen VII., and his body was dug up and cast 
into the Tiber, after it had lain nine months in the grave. 

Arnulf returned to Germany as Emperor, but weak and 
broken in body and mind. He never recovered from the effects 



What means did he take to secure it? What new measures did he ordain? 
What did the Popes now seek? What documents appeared, and when? 
What was their character? What was their practical effect? When did Ar- 
nulf visit Italy ? What did he do there ? What happened to Pope For- 

CiCSUS? 



142 



LUDWIG THE CHILD. 



[899. 



of the poison, but lingered for three years longer, seeing his 
empire becoming more and more weak and disorderly. He 
died in 899, leaving one son, Ludwig, only seven years old. 

This son, known in 
history as ^'Ludwig 
the Child," was the 
last of the Carolin- 
gian line, in Ger- 
many. In France, 
the same line, now 
represented by 
Charles the Silly, 
was also approach- 
ing its end. • 

At a diet held 
at Forchheim (near 
Nuremberg) , Lud- 
wig the Child was 
accepted as king of 
Germany, and so- 
lemnly crowned. On 
account of his ten- 
der years, he was 
placed in charge of 
Archbishop Hatto 
of Mayence, who 
was appointed, 
with Duke Otto of 
Saxony , to govern 
temporarily in his 
stead. An insur- 
rection in Lorraine was suppressed; but now a more formidable 
danger approached from the East. The Hungarians (as we 
will henceforth call the Magyars) invaded Northern Italy in 
899, and ravaged part of Bavaria on their return to the Danube. 




LUDWIG THE CHIIiD. 



"WTiat was AmulPs end? When did he die? Who succeeded him? How 
was Ludwig the Child received? Who governed during his minority? What 
now invaEions occurred? 



910.] INVASION OF THE HUNGAKIANS. 143 

Like the Huns, they destroyed everything in their way, leav- 
ing a wilderness behind their march. 

The Bavarians, with little assistance from the rest of Ger- 
many, fought the Hungarians until 907, when their Duke, 
Luitpold, was slain in battle, and his son Arnulf, purchased 
peace by a heavy tribute. Then the Hungarians invaded Thii- 
ringia, whose Duke, Burkhard, also fell fighting against them, 
after which they plundered a part of Saxony. Finally, in 910, 
the whole strength of Germany was called into the field ; Lud- 
wig, 18 years old, took command, met the Hungarians on the 
banks of the Inn, and was utterly defeated. He fled from the 
field, and was forced, thenceforth, to pay tribute to Hungary. 
He died in 911, and Germany was left without a hereditary 
ruler. 



CHAPTER XIIL 



KING KONRAD, AND THE SAXON RULEES, HENRY I. AND OTTO 
THE GREAT. (912—973.) 

Growth of SmaU Principalities in Germany.— Changes in the LpJten, or Royal 
Estates. — Diet at Eorchheim. — The Frank Duke, Conrad, chosen King. — 
Events of his Reign.— The Saxon, Henry the Fowler, succeeds him. — 
Henry's Policy towards Bavaria, Lorraine and France. — His Truce with 
the Hungarians. — His Military Preparations. — Defeat of the Hungarians. 
— Henry's Achievements,— His Death. — Coronation of Otto, — His first War. 
—Revolt of Duke Eberhard and Prince Henry. — War with Louis IV. of 
France. — Otto's Victories. — Henry Pardoned. — Conquest of Jutland. — Otto's 
Empire. — His March to Italy.— Marriage with Adelheid of Burgundy, — 
Revolt of Ludolf and Konrad.— The Hungarian Army Destroyed. — The 
Pope calls for Otto's Aid. — Otto crowned Roman Emperor. — Quarrel with 
the Pope. — Third Visit to Italy.— His Son married to an Eastern Princess. 
— His Triumph and Death. 

When Ludwig the Child died, the state of affairs in Ger- 
many had greatly changed. The direct dependence of the 
nobility and clergy upon the Emperor, established by the 
political system of Charlemagne, was almost at an end; the 



What was the character of the Hungarians? What resistance did the Ba- 
varians make? Where did the Hungarians next march? When did Ludwig 
meet them, and with what result? When did he die? 



144 FOKMATIOX OF SMALL STATES. [911. 

country was covered with petty sovereignties, which stood be- 
tween the chief ruler and the people. The estates which were 
formerly given to the bishops, abbots, nobles, and others who 
had rendered special service to the empire, were called Lehen, 
or "liens" of the monarch (as explained in Chapter X.); they 
were granted for a term of years, or for life, and afterwards 
reverted back to the royal hands. In return for such grants, 
the endowed lords were obliged to secure the loyalty of their 
retainers, the people dwelling upon their lands , and , in case 
of war, to follow the Emperor's banner with their proportion 
of fighting men. 

So long as the wars were with external foes, with op- 
portunities for both glory and plunder, the service was 
willingly performed; but when they came as a consequence of 
family quarrels, and every portion of the empire was liable to 
be wasted in its turn, the Emperor's "Vassals," both spiritual 
and temporal, began to grow restive. Their military service 
subjected them to the chance of losing their Lehen ^ and they 
therefore demanded to have absolute possession of the lands. 
The next and natural step was to have the possession, and the 
privileges connected with it, made hereditary in their fa- 
milies; and these claims were very generally secured, through- 
out Germany, during the reign of Karl the Fat. Only in 
Saxony and Friesland, and among the Alps, were the common 
people proprietors of the soiL 

The nobles, or large land- owners, for their common defence 
against the exercise of the Imperial power, united under the 
rule of Counts or Dukes, by whom the former division of the 
population into separate tribes or nations was continued. The 
Emperors, also, found this division convenient, but they always 
claimed the right to set aside the smaller rulers, or to change 
the boundaries of their states, for reasons of policy. 

Charles the Silly, of the Carolingian line, reigned in France 
in 911, and was therefore, according to the family compact, 
the heir to Ludwig the Child. Moreover, the Pope, Stephen IV. 



What was the condition of Gormany at the death of Ludwig the Child? 
What service was rendered for the Lehen? What effect had the civil wars 
ou the Emperor's "Vassals"? What claims did they make? Where did the 
people remain landholders? How did the nobles and land-owners unite? 
Who was heir to Ludwig the Child? 



913. 



THE WAES OF KING KONBAD. 145 



had threatened with the curse of the Church all those who 
should give allegiance to an Emperor who was not of Caro- 
lingian blood. Nevertheless, the German princes and nobles 
were now independent enough to defy both tradition and 
Papal authority. They held a Diet at Forchheim, and decided 
to elect their own king. They would have chosen Otto , Duke 
of the Saxons, — a man of great valor, prudence and nobility 
of character — but he felt himself to be too old for the duties 
of the royal office, and he asked the Diet to confer it on Kon- 
rad, Duke of the Franks. The latter was then almost un- 
animously chosen, and immediately crowned by Archbishop 
Hatto of Mayence. 

Konrad was a brave, gay, generous monarch, who soon 
rose into high favor with the people. His difficulty lay in the 
jealousy of other princes^ who tried to strengthen themselves 
by restricting his authority. He first lost the greater part of 
Lorraine, and then, on attempting to divide Thiiringia and 
Saxony, which were united under Henry, the son of Duke Otto, 
his army was literally cut to pieces. A Saxon song of victory, 
written at the time, says: "the lower world was too small to 
receive the throngs of the enemies slain." 

Arnulf of Bavaria and the Counts Berthold and Erchanger 
of Suabia defeated the Hungarians in a great battle near the 
river Inn, in 913, and felt themselves strong enough to defy 
Konrad. He succeeded in defeating and deposing them; but 
Arnulf fled to the Hungarians and incited them to a new in- 
vasion of Germany. They came in two bodies , one of which 
marched through Bavaria and Suabia to the Rhine, the other 
through Thuringia and Saxony to Bremen, plundering, burning 
and slaying on their way. The condition of the Empire 
became so desperate that Konrad appealed for assistance to 
the Pope, who ordered an Episcopal Synod to be held in 917, 
but not much was done by .the Bishops except to insist upon 
the payment of tithes to the Church. Then Konrad, wounded 



"What course bad the Pope taken? What was the attitude of the German 
princes? Where did they hold a Diet? Whom did they wish to choose? 
Why did he decline? Who was chosen? What was Konrad's nature? The 
difficulty in his way? What were the first events of his reign? What was Kon- 
rad's success? Who defeated the Hungarians, and when? What followed? 
What assistance did the Pope give? 



146 HENRY THE FOWLER. [919. 

in repelling a new invasion of the Hungarians, looked forward 
to death as a release from his trouble. Feeling his end ap- 
proaching, he summoned his brother Eberhard , gave him the 
royal crown and sceptre, and bade him carry them to Duke 
Henry of Saxony, the enemy of his throne, declaring that the 
latter was the only man with power and intelligence enough 
to rule Germany. 

Henry was already popular, as the son of Otto, and it ^vas 
probably quite as much their respect for his character as for 
Konrad's last request, which led many of the German nobles 
to accompany Eberhard and join him in offering the crown. 
They found Henry in a pleasant valley near the Hartz, engaged 
in catching finches, and he was thenceforth generally called 
"Henry the Fowler" by the people. He at once accepted the 
trust confided to his hands: a Diet of the Franks and Saxons 
was held at Fritzlar the next year, 919, and he was there lifted 
upon the shield and hailed as king. But when Archbishop 
Hatto proposed to anoint him king with the usual religious 
ceremonies, he declined, asserting that he did not consider 
himself worthy to be more than a king of the people. Both 
he and his wife Mathilde were descendants of Wittekind, the 
foe and almost the conqueror, of Charlemagne. 

Neither Suabia nor Bavaria was represented at the Diet of 
Fritzlar. This meant resistance to Henry's authority, and he 
accordingly marched at once into Southern Germany. Burk- 
hard, Duke of Suabia, gave in his submission without delay; 
but Arnulf of Bavaria made preparations for resistance. The 
two armies came together near Ratisbon: all was ready for 
battle, when king Henry summoned Arnulf to meet him alone, 
between their camps. At this interview he spoke with so much 
wisdom and persuasion that Arnulf finally yielded, and Henry's 
rights were established without the shedding of blood. 

In the meantime Lorraine, ^under its Duke, Giselbert, 
had revolted, and Charles the Silly, by unexpectedly crossing 



What was Konrad's end? What was his last act? How was Henry re- 
garded? Where was he found? What name was given to him? When, 
where and hy whom was he declared king? What answer did he give to the 
Archbishop? Who were he and his wife? Who were not represented at the 
Diet? What was the consequence? What was Henry's course towards Ar- 
nulf? 



921.] 



TKEATY WITH PKANCE. 



147 



the frontier, gained possession of Alsatia, as far as the Ehine. 
Henry marched against him, but, as in the case of Arnulf, 
asked for a personal interview before engaging in battle. The 
two kings met on an island in the Rhine, near Bonn: the 
French army was encamped on the western, and the German 




— -ci ~^_-:^/:>^'/''^/ 



HENRY THE FOWLEK CHOSEN KING. 

army on the eastern bank of the river, awaiting the result. 
Charles the Silly was soon brought to terms by his shrewd, 
mtelligent rival: on the 7th of November, 921, a treaty was 
signed by which the former boundary between France and 
Germany was reaffirmed. Soon afterwards, Giselbert of Lor- 



What happened west of the Rhine? What plan did Henry adopt? What 
treaty was made, and when ? 



148 TREATY WITH THE HUNGARIANS. [924. 

raine was sent as a prisoner to Henry, but the latter, pleased 
with his character, set him free, gave him his daughter in 
marriage, and thus secured his allegiance to the German 
throne. 

In tliis manner, within five or six years after he was chosen 
king, Henry had accomplished his difficult task. Chiefly by 
peaceful means, by a combination of energy, patience and 
forbearance, he had subdued the elements of disorder in Ger- 
many, and united both princes and people under his rule. He 
was now called upon to encounter the Hungarians, who, in 
924, again invaded both Northern and Southern Germany.- 
The walled and fortified cities, such as Ratisbon, Augsburg 
and Constance, were safe from their attacks, but in the open 
field they were so powerful that Henry found himself unable 
to cope with them. His troops only dared to engage in 
sldrmishes with the smaller roving bands, in one of which, by 
great good fortune, they captured one of the Hungarian chiefs, 
or princes. A large amount of treasure was offered for his ran- 
som, but Henry refused it, and asked for a truce of nine years, 
instead. The Hungarians finally agreed to this , on condition 
that an annuai tribute should be paid to them during the time. 

This was the bravest and wisest act of king Henry's life. 
He took upon himself the disgrace of the tribute , and then at 
once set about organizing his people and developing their 
strength. The truce of nine years was not too long for the 
work upon which he entered. He began by forcing the people 
to observe a stricter military discipline, by teaching his Saxon 
foot-soldiers to fight on horseback, and by strengthening the 
defences along his eastern frontier. Hamburg, Magdeburg and 
Halle were at this time the most eastern German towns, and 
beyond or between them, especially towards the south, there were 
no strong points which could resist invasion. Henry carefully 
surveyed the ground and began the erection of a series of 
fortified enclosures. Every ninth man of the district was called 
upon to serve as garrison-soldier, while the remaining eight 
cultivated the land. One-third of the harvests was stored in 



How did Henry treat Giselbert? What did he accomplish? Whom did he 
next encounter, and when? How powerful was the invasion? What fortu- 
nate occurrence took place? How did Henry act, and for what purpose? 
VVIiat measures did he enforce? What were the most eastern cities? 



930.] 



HENRY AS CITY-BUILDER. 



149 



these fortresses, wherein, also, the people were required to 
hold their markets and their festivals. Thus Quedlinburg, 
Merseburg, Meissen and other towns soon arose within the 
fortified limits. From these achievements, Henry is often 
called, in German History, "the Founder of Cities." 




MAEKET-DAY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 



Having somewhat accustomed the people to this new form 
of military service , and constantly exercised the nobles and 
their men-at-arms in sham fights and tournaments (which he 
is said to have first instituted) , Henry now tested them in ac- 
tual war. The Slavonic tribes ea?st of the Elbe had become 
the natural and hereditary enemies of the Germans, and an 



IIow did he create other fortified places? What cities grew from them? 
What is Henry caUed? How were the nobles and soldiers exercised? 



150 VICTORY OVER THE HU^;GARIA^^S. [933. 

attack upon tliem hardly required a pretext. The present 
province of Brandenburg, the basis of the Prussian kingdom, 
was conquered by Henry in 928; and then, after a successful 
invasion of Bohemia, he gradually extended his annexation 
to the Oder. The most of the Slavonic population were 
slaughtered without mercy, and the Saxons and Thiiringians, 
spreading eastward, took possession of their vacant lands. 
Finally,in 932, Henry conquered Lusatia (now Eastern Saxony); 
Bohemia was already tributary, and his whole eastern frontier 
was thereby advanced from the Baltic at Stettin to the Danube 
at Vienna. 

By this time the nine years of truce with the Hungarians 
were at an end, and when the ambassadors of the latter came 
to the German Court to receive their tribute, they were sent 
back with empty hands. A tradition states that Henry ordered 
an old, mangy dog to be given to them, instead of the usual 
gold and silver. A declaration of war followed, as he had 
anticipated; but the Hungarians seem to have surprised him 
by the rapidity of their movements. Contrary to their previous 
custom, they undertook a winter campaign, overrunning Thii- 
ringia and Saxony in such immense numbers that the king 
did not immediately venture to oppose them. He waited until 
their forces were divided, in the search for plunder, then fell 
upon a part and defeated them. Shortly afterwards he moved 
against their main army, and on the 15th of March, 933, after 
a bloody battle (which is believed to have been fought in the 
vicinity of Merseburg), was again conqueror. The Hungarians 
fled, leaving their camp, treasures and accumulated plunder 
in Henry's hands. They were never again dangerous to Nor- 
thern Germany. 

After this came a war with the Danish king, Gorm, who 
had crossed the Eider and taken Holstein. Henry brought it 
to an end, and added Sthleswig to his dominion rather by 
diplomacy than by arms. After his long and indefatigable 



Wliat conquests were then made? Ilow was the frontier advanced? How 
were the Hunj^'^arian ambassadors received? What is the tradition in regard 
to it? .What followed? How did the Hungarians move? What was Henry's 
course? When and where was the battle? What was the result of it? What 
was Henry's next conquest? 



936.] 



OTTO ELECTED KING. 



151 



exertions, the empire enjoyed peace; its boundaries were ex- 
tended and secured; all the minor rulers submitted to his 
sway, and his in- 
fluence over the 
people was un- 
bounded. But he 
was not destined 
to enjoy the fruits 
of his achievements. 
A stroke of apo- 
plexy warned him 
to set his house in 
order; so, in the 
spring of 936, he 
called together a 
Diet atErfurt, which 
accepted his second 
son, Otto, as his 
successor. Although 
he left two other 
sons, no proposition 
was made to divide 
Germany among 
them. The civil 
wars of the Mero- 
vingian and Caro- 
lingian dynasties, 
during nearly 400 
years , compelled 
the adoption of a 
different system of 
succession ; and the 
reigning Dukes and 

Counts were now so strong that they bowed reluctantly even 
to the authority of a single monarch. 

Henry died on the 20th of July, 936, not sixty years old. 
Ilis son and successor. Otto, was twenty-four, — a stern, proud 




OTTO THE GREAT. 



What had he achieved? When did his end approach? 
was made for a successor? When did he die? 



What preparation 



152 THE BEGINNING OF HIS REIGN. [937. 

man, but brave, firm, generous ana intelligent. Ke was married 
to Editha, the daughter of Athelstan, the Saxon king of Eng- 
land. A few weeks after his father's death, he was crowned 
with great splendor in the cathedral of Charlemagne, at Aix- 
la-Chapelle. All the Dukes and Bishops of the realm were pre- 
sent, and the new Emperor was received with universal ac- 
clamation. At the banquet which followed, the Dukes of 
Lorraine, Franconia, Suabia and Bavaria, served as Chamber- 
lain, Steward, Cup-bearer and Marshal. It was the first na- 
tional event, of a spontaneous character, which took place in 
Germany, and now, for the first time, a German Empire seemed 
to be a reality. 

The history of Otto's reign fulfilled, at least to the people 
of his day, the promise of his coronation. Like his father, his 
inheritance was to include wars with internal and external 
foes ; he met and carried them to an end, with an energy equal 
to that of Henry I., but without the same prudence and pa- 
tience. He made Germany the first power of the civilized 
world, yet he failed to unite the discordant elements of which 
it was composed, and thei^fore was not able to lay the foun- 
dation of a distinct nation^ such as was even then slowly grow- 
ing up in France. 

He was first called upon to repel invasions of the Bo- 
hemians and the Wends, in Prussia. He entrusted the subjec- 
tion of the latter to a Saxon Count, Hermann Billung, and 
marched himself against the former. Both wars lasted for 
some time, but they were finally successful. The Hungarians, 
also, whose new inroad reached even to the banks of the Loire, 
were tAvice defeated, and so discouraged that they never after- 
wards attempted to invade either Thiiringia and Saxony. 

Worse troubles, however, were brewing within the realm. 
Eberhard, Duke of the Franks ( the same who had carried his 
brother Konrad's crown to Otto's father), had taken into his 
own hands the punishment of a Saxon noble, instead of re- 
ferring the case to the king. The latter compelled Eberhard 



What was Otto's age and character? "Who was his wife? When and how 
was he crowned? What happened at the festival, and what was its character? 
What was the character of Otto's reign? Wherein did he succeed? and 
wherein fail? What was his first task? Whom did he next meet? Who gave 
r:se to new trouble? 



938.] EEVOLT OF OTTO's BROTHER, HENRY. 153 

to pay a fine of a hundred pounds of silver , and ordered that 
the Frank freemen who assisted him should carry dogs in 
their arms to the royal castle, — a form of punishment which was 
then considered very disgracefuL After the order had been 
carried into effect, Otto received the culprits kindly and gave 
them rich presents ; but they went home brooding revenge. 

Eberhard allied himself with Thankmar, Otto's own half- 
brother by a mother from whom Henry I. had been divorced 
before marrying Mathilde. Giselbert, Duke of Lorraine, Otto's 
brother-in law, joined the conspiracy, and even many of the 
Saxon nobles, who were offended because the command of tlie 
army sent against the Wends had been given to Count Her- 
mann, followed his example. Otto's position was very critical, 
and if there had been more harmony of action among the con- 
spirators, he might have lost his throne. In the struggle 
which ensued, Thankmar was slain and Duke Eberhard forced 
to surrender. But the latter was not yet subdued. During 
the rebellion he had taken Otto's younger brother, Henry, 
j)risoner; he secured the latter's confidence, tempted him with 
the prospect of being chosen king in case Otto was overthrown, 
and then sent him as his intercessor to the conqueror. 

Thus, while Otto supposed the movement had been crushed, 
Eberhard, Giselbert of Lorraine and Henry, who had meantime 
joined the latter, were secretly preparing a new rebellion. As 
soon as Otto discovered the fact, he collected an army and 
hastened to the Rhine. He had crossed the river with only a 
small part of his troops , the remainder being still encamped 
upon the eastern bank, when Giselbert and Henry suddenly 
appeared with a great force. Otto at first gave himself np 
for lost, but, determined at least to fall gallantly, he and his 
followers fought with such desperation that they won a signal 
victory. Giselbert retreated to Lorraine, whither Otto was 
prevented from following him by new troubles among the 
Saxons and the subject Wends between the Elbe and Oder. 



What was the punishment of Eberhard and his men? "What effect lind it 
upon them? Who conspired with Eberhard? What was the first consequence 
of the struggle? What device did Eberhard next employ? What new move- 
ment was arranged, and by whom? What toc>k place on the Rhine? What 
prevented Otto from following up his success? 



154 otto's success. [939. 

The rebellious princes now sought the help of the king of 
France, Louis IV. (called cVOiitrc-mcr , or ".from beyond sea," 
because he had been an exile in England). He marched into 
Alsatia with a French army, while Duke Eberhard and the 
Archbishop of Mayence added their forces to those of Giselbert 
and Henry. All the territory west of the Rhine fell into their 
hands, and the danger seemed so great that many of the 
smaller German princes began to waver in their fidelity 
to Otto. He, however, hastened to Alsatia, defeated the 
French, and laid siege to the fortress of Breisach (half-way be- 
tween Strasburg and Basel), although Giselbert was then ad- 
vancing into Westphalia. A small band who remained true to 
him met the latter and forced him back upon the Rhine; and 
there, in a battle fought near Andernach, Eberhard was slain 
a.!id Giselbert drowned in attempting to fly. 

This was the turning-point in Otto's fortunes. The French 
retreated, all the supports of the rebellion fell away from it, 
and in a short time the king's authority was restored through- 
out the whole of Germany. These events occured during the 
year 939. The following year Otto marched to Paris, which, 
however, was too strongly fortified to be taken. An irregular 
war between the two kingdoms lasted for some time longer, 
and was finally terminated by a personal interview between 
Otto and Louis IV., at which the ancient boundaries were re- 
affirmed, Lorraine remaining German. 

Henry, pardoned for the second time, was unable to main- 
tain himself as Duke of Lorraine, to which position Otto had 
appointed him. Enraged at being set aside, he united with 
the Archbishop of Mayence in a conspiracy against his brother's 
life. It was arranged that the murder should be committed 
during the Easter services, in Quedlinburg. The plot was dis- 
covered, the accomplices tried and executed, and Henry thrown 
into prison. During the celebration of the Christmas mass, in 
the cathedral at Frankfort, the same year, he suddenly ap- 



Who now joined the rebellion? What were the first movements? "Wluit 
results followed? What was Otto's action? How was Giselbert defeated, aud 
wlierc? What was the end of the struggle, and when? Whither did Otto 
march? How was the struggle terminated? In what conspiracy did Henry 
engage^ and why? What was the plan, and its result? 



340.] otto's empire. 155 

peared before Otto, and, throwing himself upon his knees 
before him, prayed for pardon. Otto was magnanimous enough 
to grant it, and afterwards to forget as well as forgive. He 
bestowed new favors upon Henry, who never again became un- 
faithful. 

During this time the Saxon Counts , Gero and Hermann, 
had held the Wends and other Slavonic tribes at bay, and 
gradually filled the conquered territory. beyond the Elbe with 
fortified posts, around which German colonists rapidly clustered. 
Following the example of Charlemagne, the people were 
forcibly converted to Christianity, and new churches and mon- 
asteries were founded. The Bohemians were made tributary, 
the Hungarians repelled, and in driving back an invasion of 
the king of Denmark, Harold Blue-tooth, Otto marched to the 
extremity of the peninsula of Jutland , and there hurled his 
spear into the sea, as a sign that he had taken possession of 
the land. 

He now ruled a wider, and apparently a more united 
realm, than his father. The power of the independent Dukes 
was so weakened, that they felt themselves subjected to his 
favor; he was everywhere respected and feared, although he 
never became popular with the masses of the people. He 
lacked the easy, familiar ways with them which distinguished 
his father, and Charlemagne ; his manner was cold and haughty, 
and he surrounded himself with pomp and ceremony. He 
married his eldest son, Ludolf, to the daughter of the Duke of 
Suabia, whom the former soon succeeded in his rule ; he gave 
Lorraine to his son-in-law, Konrad, and Bavaria to his brother 
Henry, while he retained the Franks, Thiiringians and Saxons 
under his own personal rule. Germany might have grown 
into a united nation, if the good qualities of his line could 
have been transmitted, without its inordinate ambition. 

While thus laying, as he supposed, the permanent basis of 
his power, Otto was called upon by the king of France , who, 



What afterwards happened in Frankfort? What success had the Saxon 
Counts over the Slavonic tribes? What did Otto achieve over the Bohemians? 
the Hungarians? What was his next victory? What was now his position? 
What were his manners and habits? What position had his eldest son? What 
other dispositions did Otto make? 



156 HIS VISIT TO ITALY. [951. 

having married the widow of Giselbert of Lorraine, was now 
his brother-in-law, for help against Duke Hugo, a powerful 
pretender to the French throne. In 946 he marched, at the 
head of an army of 32,000 men, to assist king Louis; but, 
although he reached Normandy, he did not succeed in his ob- 
ject, and several years elapsed before Hugo was brought to 
submission. 

In the year 951, Otto's attention was directed to Italy, 
which, since the fall of the Carolingian Empire, had been 
ravaged in turn by Saracens, Greeks, Normans and even Hun- 
garians. The Papal power had become almost a shadow, and 
the title of Roman Emperor was practically extinct. Berengar 
of Friuli, a rough, brutal prince , called himself king of Italy, 
and demanded the hand of Adelheid, the sister of Konrad, king 
of Burgundy, who had secured his throne with Otto's aid. On 
her refusal to accept Berengar, she was imprisoned and treated 
with great indignity, but finally succeeded in sending a 
messenger to Germany, imploring Otto's intervention. His 
wife, Editha of England, was dead: he saw, in Adelheid's 
appeal, an opportuni^f^ to acquire an ascendency in Italy, and 
resolved to claim her hand for himself. 

Accompanied by his brother Henry of Bavaria, his son 
Ludolf of Suabia, and his son-in-law Konrad of Lorraine, with 
their troops. Otto crossed the Alps, defeated Berengar, took 
possession of Verona, Pavia, Milan and other cities of Northern 
Italy, and assumed the title of king of Lombardy. He then 
applied for Adelheid's hand, which was not refused, and the 
two were married with great pomp at Pavia. Ludolf, incensed at 
his father for having taken a second w4fe, returned immediately 
to Germany, and there stirred up such disorder that Otto re- 
linquished his intention of visiting Home, and followed him. 
After much negotiation, Berengar was allowed to remain king 
of Lombardy, on condition of giving up all the Adriatic shore, 
from near Venice to Istria, which was then annexed to Ba- 
varia. 



Who next appealed to him for help ? When, and where did he march, and 
with what result? When was he called to Italy? What was its condition? 
Who was king? Who was Adelheid, and wlij did she appeal to Otto? What 
did he decide? What events followed? Where wae Otto maried? What was 
LudolPs course thereupon? What arrangement was made with Berengar? 



158 THE BATTLE ON THE LECH. [955. 

Duke Henry, therefore, profited most by the Italian cam- 
paign, and this excited the jealousy of Ludolf and Konrad, who 
began to conspire both against him and against Otto's authority. 
The trouble increased until it became an open rebellion, which 
convulsed Germany for nearly four years. If Otto had been 
personally popular, it might have been soon suppressed; but 
the petty princes and the peoj)le inclined to one side or the 
other, according to the prospects of success, and the empire, 
finally, seemed on the point of falling to pieces. In this crisis, 
there came what appeared to be a new misfortune, but which, 
most unexpectedly, put an end to the wasting strife. The 
Hungarians again broke into Germany, and Ludolf and Kon- 
rad granted them permission to pass through their territory 
to reach and ravage their father's lands. This alliance with 
an hereditary and barbarous enemy turned the whole people 
to Otto's side ; the long rebellion came rapidly to an end , and 
all troubles were settled by a Diet held at the close of 954. 

The next year the Hungarians came again in greater 
numbers than ever, and crossing Bavaria , laid siege to Augs- 
burg. But Otto now marched against them with all the mili- 
tary strength of Germany, and on the 10th of August, 955, 
met them in battle. Konrad of Lorraine led the attack and 
decided the fate of the day, but, in the moment of victory, 
having lifted his visor to breathe more freely, a Hungarian 
arrow pierced his neck and he fell dead. Nearly all the enemy 
were slaughtered or drowned in the river Lech. Only a few 
scattered fugitives returned to Hungary to tell the tale, and 
from that da}^ no new invasion was ever undertaken against Ger- 
many. On the contrary, the Bavarians pressed eastward and 
spread themselves along the Danube and among the Styrian 
Alps, while the Bohemians took possession of Moravia, so that 
the boundary lines between the three races then became very 
nearly what they are at the present day. 

Soon afterwards. Otto lost his brother Henry of Bavaria, 
and, two years later, his son Ludolf, who died in Italy, while 



Who conspired against Otto, and why? "What was Otto's danger? How 
did the struggle come to an end? When and how was the difficulty settled? 
When was the next invasion of the Hungarians? When did Otto meet them? 
What were the events of the battle? Wliat followed the Hungarian defeat? 



962.] otto's COKONATION IN ROME. 159 

endeavoring to make himself king of the Lombards. A new 
disturbance in Saxony was suppressed, and with it there was 
an end of civil war in Germany, during Otto's reign. AYe have 
already stated that he was proud and ambitious : the crown of 
a "Roman Emperor," which still seemed the highest title on 
earth, had probably always hovered before his mind, and now 
the opportunity of attaining it came. The Pope, John XII., a 
boy of seventeen, who found himself in danger of being driven 
from Rome by Berengar, the Lombard, sent a pressing call for 
help to Otto, who entered upon his second journey to Italy in 
961. 

He first called a Diet together at \Yorms , and procured 
the acceptance of his son Otto, then only 6 years old, as his 
successor. The child was solemnly crowned at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle; the Archbishop Bruno of Cologne was appointed his 
guardian and vicegerent of the realm during Otto's absence, 
and the latter was left free to carry out his designs beyond 
the xilps. He was received with rejoicing by the Lombards, 
and the iron crown of the kingdom was placed on his head by 
the ArchbishojD of Milan. He then advanced to Rome and was 
crowned Emperor in St. Peter's by the boy-pope, on the 2d of 
February, 962. Nearly a generation had elapsed since the 
title had been held or claimed by any one, and its renewal at 
this time was the source of centuries of loss and suffering to 
Germany. It was a sham and a delusion, — a will-o'-the wisp 
which led rulers and people aside from the true path of civili- 
zation, and left them floundering in quagmires of war. 

Otto had hardly returned to Lombardy before the Pope, 
who began to see that he had crowned his own master, con- 
spired against him. The Pope called on the Byzantine Em- 
peror for aid, incited the Hungarians and even entered into 
correspondence with the Saracens in Corsica. All Italy became 
so turbulent that three years elapsed before the Emperor Otto 
succeeded in restoring order. He took Rome by force of arms, 



What otlieT events transpired in Germany? Who demanded Otto's help? 
Why? When did he march? What previous step did he take? Who was 
appointed young Otto's guardian? How was Otto received in Italy? When 
was he crowned Emperor? How long since the title had been held? What 
was the subsequent conduct of the Pope? How long before Otto restored 
order ? 

8 



160 otto's final successes in ITALY. [966. 

deposed the Pope and set up another, of his own appointment, 
banished Berengar, and compelled the universal recognition of 
his own sovereignty. Then , with the remnants of an army 
which had almost been destroyed by war and pestilence, he 
returned to Germany in 965. 

A grand festival was held at Cologne, to celebrate his new 
honors and victories. His mother, the aged queen Mathilde, 
Lothar, reigning king of France, and all the Dukes and Princes 
of Germany, were present, and the people came in multitudes 
from far and wide. The internal peace of the Empire had not 
been disturbed during Otto's absence, and his journey of in- 
spection was a series of peaceful and splendid pageants. An 
insurrection having broken out among the Lombards the 
following year, he sent Duke Burkhard of Suabia to suppress 
it in his name; but it soon became evident that his own 
presence was necessary. He thereupon took a last farewell of 
his old mother, and returned to Italy in the autumn of 966. 

Lombardy was soon brought to order, and the rebellious 
nobles banished to Germany. As Otto approached Rome, the 
people restored the Pope he had appointed, wliom they had in 
the meantime deposed: they were also compelled to give up 
the leaders of the revolt, who were tried and executed. Otto 
claimed the right of appointing the Civil Governor of Rome, 
who should rule in his name. He gave back to the Pope the 
territory which the latter had received from Pippin the Short, 
two hundred years before, but nearly all of which had been 
taken from the Church by the Lombards. In return, the Pope 
agreed to govern this territory as a part, or province, of the 
Empire, and to crown Otto's son as Emperor, in advance of his 
accession to the throne. 

These new successes seem to have quite turned Otto's mind 
from the duty he owed to the German people; henceforth he 
only strove to increase the power and splendor of his house. 
His next step was to demand the hand of the Princess Theo- 



What were his acts? When did he return to Germany? Wliat festival 
■was held, and who were present? What insurrection broke out? When did 
Otto return to Italy? What happened on his arrival at Rome ? What right did 
he claim? What did he confer on the Pope? What was the Popo'e part of 
the agreement? What effect had these successes on Otto? 



972.] 



THEOPHANIA, THE GKEEK PRINCESS. 



161 



phania, a daughter of one of the Byzantine Emperors , for his 
sou Otto. The Eastern Court neither consented nor refused; 
ambassadors were sent back and forth until the Emperor be- 
came weary of the delay. Following the suggestion of his 
offended pride, he undertook a campaign against Southern 
Italy, parts of which still acknowledged the Byzantine rule. 




EUINS OF MEMLEBEX. 



The war lasted for several years, without any positive result; 
but the hand of Theophania was finally promised to young 
Otto, and she reached Rome in the beginning of the year 972. 
Her beauty, grace and intelligence at once won the hearts of 
Otto's followers, who had been up to that time opposed to the 
marriage. Although her betrothed husband was only 17, and 
she was a year younger, the nuptials were celebrated in April, 
and the Emperor then immediately returned to Germany with 
his Court and army. 



What was his next step? How did the Eastern Court receive his request? 
What course did Otto pursue? What was the effect? When did the marriage 
t:ike place? What followed it? "What was Otto's next movement? 



162 DEATH OF OTTO THE GKEAT. [973. 

All that Otto could show, to balance his six years' neglect 
of his own land and people, was the title of "the Great," which 
the Italians bestowed upon him, and a Princess of Constan- 
tinople, who spoke Greek and looked upon the Germans as 
barbarians, for his daughter-in-law. His return was celebrated 
by a grand festival held at Quedlinburg, at Easter, 973. All 
the Dukes and reigning Counts of the Empire were present, 
the kings of Bohemia and Poland, ambassadors from Con- 
stantinople , from the Caliph of Cordova , in Spain , from Bul- 
garia, Kussia, Denmark and Hungary. Even Charlemagne 
never enjoyed such a triumph; but in the midst of the festivi- 
ties. Otto's first friend and supporter, Hermann Billung, whom 
he had made Duke of Saxony , suddenly died. The Emperor 
became impressed with the idea that his own end was near: 
he retired to Memleben in Thiiringia, where his father died, 
and on the 6th of May was stricken with apoplexy, at the age 
of 61. He died, seated in his chair and surrounded by his 
princely guests, and was buried in Magdeburg , by the side of 
his first wife, Editha of England. 

Otto completed the work which Henry commenced, and 
left Germany the first power in Europe. Had liis mind been 
as clear and impartial, his plans as broad and intelligent, as 
Charlemagne's, he might have laid the basis of a permanent 
Empire; but, in an evil hour, he called the phantom of the 
sceptre of the vyorld from the grave of Roman power, and, 
believing that he held it , turned the ages that were to follow 
him into the path of war, disunion and misery. 



What did Otto take home from Italy? How was his return celebrated? 
Who were present? What happened, and how did it affect Otto? Wlien, 
and under what circumstances, did ho die? What work had he accomj lished? 



973.J OTTO 11., THE EEC. 163 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE DECLINE OP THE SAXON DYNASTY. 

(973—1024.) 

Otto II., "The Eed".— Conquest of Bavaria.— Invasion of Lotliar of France. 
—Otto's March to Paris,— His Journey to Italy.— His Defeat by the Sara- 
cens, and Escape. — Diet at Verona.— Otto's Death. — Theophania as Regent. 
— Alienation of France.— Otto III. — His Dealings with the Popes. — Nego- 
tiations with the Poles. — His Fantastic Actions. — His Death in Rome. — 
Youthful Popes. — Henry of Bavaria chosen by the Germans.— His Cha- 
racter. — War with Poland. — March to Italy, and Coronation.— Other Wars. 
— Henry repels the Byzantines,— His Death. — The Character of his Reign. 
-His Piety. 

Otto II., already crowned as king and Emperor, began his 
reign as one authorized ''by the grace of God." Although only 
18 years old, and both physically and intellectually immature, 
his succession was immediately acknowledged by the rulers 
of the smaller German States. He was short and stout, and of 
such a ruddy complexion that the people gave him the name 
of "Otto the Red." He had been carefully educated, and 
possessed excellent qualities of heart and mind , but he had 
not been tried by adversity, like his father and grandfather, 
and failed to inherit either the patience or the energy of either. 
At first his mother, the widowed Empress Adelheid, conducted 
the government of the Empire, and with such prudence that 
all were satisfied. Soon, however, the Empress Theophania 
became jealous of her mother-in-law's influence, and the latter 
was compelled to retire to her former home in Burgundy. 

The first internal trouble came from Henry IL, Duke of 
Bavaria, the son of Otto the Great's rebellious brother, and 
cousin of Otto II. He was ambitious to convert Bavaria into 
an independent kingdom: in fact he had himself crowned king 
at Ratisbon, but in 976 he was defeated, taken prisoner and 



Who now reigned, how old was he, and how was he received? What was 
bis appearance? How was he called? What was his character? Who first 
conducted the government, and in what manner? Why was Adelheid com. 
pelled to leave? Who occasioned the first trouble? 



164 BATTLE WITH THE SARACENS. [982. 

banislied to Holland by the Emperor. Bavaria was united to 
Suabia, and the Eastern provinces on the Danube were erected 
into a separate principality, which was the beginning of 
Austria, as a new German power. 

At the same time Otto II. was forced to carry on new wars 
with Bohemia and Denmark, in both of which he maintained 
the frontiers established by his father. But Lothar, king of 
France, used the opportunity to get possession of Lorraine 
and even to take Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's capital, in the 
summer of 978. The German people were so enraged at this 
treacherous invasion that Otto II. had no difficulty in raisinp^ 
an army of 60,000 men, with which he marched to Paris in 
the autumn of the same year. The city was so well fortified 
and defended that he found it prudent to raise the siege as 
winter approached; but first, on the heights of Montmartre, 
his army chanted a Te Dcitm as a warning to the enemy 
within the walls. The strife was prolonged until 980, when 
it was settled by a personal interview of the Emperor and the 
king of France, at which Lorraine was restored to Germany. 

In 981 Otto II. went to Italy. His mother, Adelheid, came 
to Pa via to meet him, and a complete reconciliation took 
place between them. Then he advanced to Rome, quieted the 
dissensions in the government of the city, and received as his 
guests Konrad, king of Burgundy, and Hugh Capet, destined 
to be the ancestor of a long line of French kings. At this time 
both the Byzantine Greeks and the Saracens were ravaging 
Southern Italy, and it was Otto II.'s duty, as Roman Emperor, 
to drive them from the land. The two bitterly hostile races 
became allies, in order to resist him , and the war was carried 
on fiercely until the summer of 982 without any result; then, 
on the 13th of July, on the coast of Calabria, the Imperial 
army was literally cut to pieces by the Saracens. The Emperor 
escaped capture by riding into the Mediterranean and swim- 
ming to a ship which lay near. When he was taken on board 



What was his fortune? What became of Bavaria? What new wars fol- 
lowed? Who suddenly invaded the Empire, and when? Describe Otto's march 
to Paris. When and how was the matter settled? What was Otto's next 
journey? Whom did he receive, in Rome? What led liim to Southern Italy T 
How did he fare tliere? 



yS3.J 



DIET AT VERONA. 



165 



he found it to be a Greek vessel; but whether he was recognized 
or not (for the accounts vary), he prevailed upon the captain 
to set him ashore at Rossano, where the Empress Theophania 



was awaiting his return from battle. 




OTTO tl.'S ESCAPE FT^OM THE GREEK SHIP. 

This was a severe blow, but it aroused the national spirit 
of Germany. Otto IL, having returned to Northern Italy, 
summoned a general Diet of the Empire to meet at Verona in 
the summer of 983. Ail the subject Dukes and Princes at- 
tended, even the kings of Burgundy and Bohemia. Here, for 
the first time, the Lombard Italians appeared on equal footing 



What were tho circumstances of his escape? What wus the effect of thig 
disaster? What Diet was held? Who were present? 



166 OTTO III.'S MrN^ORITT. [991. 

with the Saxons, Franks and Bavarians, acknowledged the 
authority of the Empire, and elected Otto II/s son, another 
Otto, only three years old, as his successor. Preparations 
were made for a grand war against the Saracens and the 
Eastern Empire, but before they were completed Otto II. died, 
at the age of 28. His body was taken to Rome and buried in 
St. Peter's. 

The news of his death reached Aix-la-Chapelle at the very 
time when his infant son was crowned king as Otto III., in 
accordance with the decree of the Diet of Verona. A dispute 
now arose as to the guardiansliip of the child, between the 
widowed Empress Theophania and Henry II. of Bavaria, who 
at once returned from his exile in Holland. The latter aimed 
at usurping the Imperial throne, but he was incautious enough 
to betray his design too soon, and met with such opposition 
that he was lucky in being allowed to retain his former place 
as Duke of Bavaria. The Empress Theophania reigned in 
Germany in her son's name, while Adelheid, widow of Otto the 
Great, reigned in Italy. The former, however, had the assist- 
ance of Willigis, Archbishop of Mayence, a man of great wis- 
dom and integrity. He was the son of a poor Saxon wheel- 
wright, and chose for his coat-of-arms as an Archbishop, a 
wheel, with the words: "Willigis, forget not thine origin." 
When Theophania died, in 991, her place was taken by 
Otto in.'s grandmother, Adelheid, who chose the Dukes of 
Saxony, Suabia, Bavaria and Tuscany as her councillors. 

During this time the Wends in Prussia again arose, and 
after a long and wasting war, in which the German settlements 
beyond the Elbe received little help from the Imperial govern- 
ment, the latter were either conquered or driven back. The 
relations between Germany and France were also actually those 
of war, although there were no open hostilities. The struggle 
for the throne of France , between Duke Charles , the last of 
the Carolingian line, and Hugh Capet, wliich ended in the 



On what footing -vrcre the Lombarda? What waQ done? When did 
Otto II. die? What dispute arose? How did Henry of Bavaria succeed? 
Who reigned in Germany and Italy? Who assisted Theophania? Who suc- 
ceeded her? What took place m Pruaeia, at this tlnio? What were tho r*^la- 
tions with France? 



996.J HIS COKONATION IN KOME. 167 

triumph of the latter, broke the last link of blood and tradi- 
tion connecting the two countries. They had been jealous 
relatives hitherto; now they became strangers, and it is not 
long until History records them as enemies. 

When Otto III. was sixteen years old, in 996, he took the 
Imperial government in his own hands. His education had 
been more Greek than German ; he was ashamed of his Saxon 
blood, and named himself, in his edicts: *'a Greek by birth 
and a Roman by right of rule." He was a strange, unsteady, 
fantastic character, whose only leading idea was to surround 
himself with the absurd ceremonies of the Byzantine Court, 
and to make Rome the capital of his Empire. His reign was 
a farce, compared with that of his grandfather, the great 
Otto, and yet it was the natural consequence of the latter's 
perverted ambition. 

Otto III.'s first act was to march to Rome, in order to be 
crowned as Emperor by the Pope, John XV., in exchange for 
assisting him against Crescentius, a Roman noble who had 
usurped the civil government. But the PojDe died before his 
arrival, and Otto thereupon appointed his own cousin, Bruno, 
a young man of twenty- four, who took the Papal chair as 
Gregory Y. The new-made Pope, of course, crowned him as 
Roman Emperor, a few days afterwards. The people, in those 
days, were accustomed to submit to any authority, spiritual 
or political, which was strong enough to support its own claims, 
but this bargain was a little too plain and bare-faced ; and 
Otto had hardly returned to Germany, before the Roman, Cres- 
centius, drove away Gregory V. and set up a new Pope, of his 
own appointment. 

The \Yends, in Prussia, were giving trouble, and the Scan- 
dinavians and Danes ravaged all the northern coast of Germany; 
but the boy-emperor, without giving a thought to his imme- 
diate duty, hastened back to Italy in 997, took Crescentius 
prisoner and beheaded him, barbarously mutilated the rival 
Pope, and reinstated Gregory Y. When the latter died, in 



How did the struggle in France end? When did Otto III. assume the 
government? How did he style himself? What were his leading ideas? 
What was the character of his reign? What was his first act? "Whom did 
he appoint Pope? What did the people think of his coronation? What in- 
vasion took place in the North? What were Otto's acts? 



lOy OTTO III.'S FANTASTIC ACTS. [lOOO. 

999, Otto made his own teacher, Gerbert of Ixheims, Pope, 
under the name of Sylvester II. In spite of the reverence 
of the common people for the Papal office, they always be- 
lieved Pope Sylvester to be a magician, and in league with the 
Devil. He was the most learned man of his day, and in liis 
knowledge of natural science was far in advance of his time ; 
but such accomplishments were then very rare in Italy, and 
unheard-of in a Pope. Otto III. remained three years longer 
in Italy, dividing his time between pompous festivals and 
visits to religious anchorites. 

In the year 1000 he was recalled to Germany. His father's 
sister, Mathilde, who had governed the country as well as she 
was able, during his absence, was dead, and there were diffi- 
culties, not of a political nature (for to such he paid no atten- 
tion), but in the organization of the Church , which he was 
anxious to settle. The Poles were converted to Christianity 
by this time, and their spiritual head was the Archbishop of 
Magdeburg; but now they demanded a separate and national 
diocese. This Otto granted to their Duke, or king, Boleslaw, 
with such other independent rights, that the authority of the 
German Empire soon ceased to be acknowleged by the Poles. 
He made a pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Adalbert of Prague, 
who was slain by the Prussian pagans, then visited Aix-la- 
Chapelle, where, following a ha If- delirious fancy, he descended 
into the vault where lay the body of Charlemagne, in the hope 
of hearing a voice, or receiving a sign, wliich might direct him 
how to restore the Roman Empire. 

The new Pope, Sylvester 11., after Otto lII.'s departure from 
Rome, found himself in as difficult a position as his predecessor, 
Gregory V. He was also obliged to call the Emperor to his 
aid, and the latter returned to Italy in 1001. He established 
his court in a palace on Mount Aventine, in Rome, and main- 
tained his authority for a little while, in spite of a fierce po- 
pular revolt. Then, becoming restless, yet not knowing what 



What otlier Pope did ho appoint? How was he considered by the people, and 
why? How long did Otto remain in Italy? When and why was he recalled 
to Germany? What did the Poles demand? What grants did Otto make to 
them? What other fantastic acts did he commit? Why did ho return to 
Italy? 



1002.] 



DEATH OF OTTO III. 



169 



to do, he wandered up and down Italy, paid a mysterious 
visit to Venice by night, and finally returned to Kome, to 
find the gates barred against him. He began a siege, but 
before anything was accomplished, he died in 1002, as was 
generally believed, of poison. The nobles and the imperial 




OTTO III. AT TIIE TOMB OF CHARLEMAGNE. 



guards who accompanied him took charge of his body, cut their 
way through a population in rebellion against his rule , and 
carried him over the Alps to Germany, where he was buried 
in Aix-la-Chapelle. 

The next year Pope Sylvester II. died, and Rome fell into 
the hands of the Counts of Tusculum, who tried to make the 



What did he do there? W^at happened at Kome? When and how did bo 
die? How was his body brought to Germany? 



170 HEXEY II. ELECTED. [l002. 

Papacy a hereditaiy dignity in their family. One of them, a 
boy of seventeen, became Pope as John XVI., and during the 
following thirty years four other boys held the office of Head 
of the Christian Church, crowned Emperors, and blessed or 
excommunicated at their will. This was the end of the grand 
political and spiritual Empire w4iich Charlemagne had planned, 
two centuries before — a fantastic, visionary youth as Emperor, 
and a weak, ignorant boy as Pope! The effect w^as the rapid 
demoralization of princes and people, and nothing but the 
genuine Christianity still existing among the latter, from 
whom the ranks of the priests were recruited, saved the grea- 
ter part of Europe from a relapse into barbarism. 

At Otto III.'s death there were three claimants to the 
throne, belonging to the Saxon dynasty ; but his nearest rela- 
tive, Henry, third Duke of Bavaria, and great-grandson of king 
Henry I. the Fowler, was finally elected. Suabia, Saxony 
and Lorraine did not immediately acquiesce in the choice, 
but they soon found it expedient to submit. Henry's authority 
was thus established within Germany, but on its frontiers and 
in Italy, which was now considered a genuine part of *'thc 
Roman Empire", the usual troubles awaited him. He was a 
man of weak constitution, and only average intellect, but 
well-meaning, conscientious, and probably as just as it was 
possible for him to be, under the circumstances. His life, as 
Emperor, was "a battle and a march", but its heaviest burdens 
were inherited from his predecessors. He was obliged to 
correct twenty years of misrule, or rather no rule, and he 
courageously gave the remainder of his life to the ta«k. 

The Polish Duke, Boleslaw, sought to unite Bohemia and 
all the Slavonic territory eastward of the Elbe, under his own 
sway. This brought him into direct collision with the claims 
of Germany, and the question was not settled until after three 
long and bloody wars. Finally, in 1018, a treaty was made 
between Henry H. and Boleslaw, by which Bohemia remained 
tributary to the German Empire, and the province of Meissen 



"What took place in Kome, afterwards? What kind of Popes succeeded, 
and for how long? What was the effect of all this? Wlio was chosen as 
Otto's successor? Under what circumstances? What was his character? What 
did the Polish Duke undertake? 



1014.] HE IS CROWNED IN ROME. 171 

(in the present kingdom of Saxony) became an appanage of 
Poland. By this time the Wends had secured possession of 
Northern Prussia, between the Elbe and the Oder, thrown off 
the German rule, and returned to their ancient pagan faith. 

In Italy, Arduin of Ivrea succeeded in inciting the Lom- 
bards to revolt, and proclaimed himself king of an independent 
Italian nation. Henry II. crossed the Alps in 1006, and took 
Pavia, the inhabitants of which city rose against him. In the 
struggle which followed, it was burned to the ground. After 
his return to Germany Arduin recovered his influence and power, 
became practically king, and pressed the Pope, Benedict VIII. , 
so hard, that the latter went personally to Henry 11. (as Leo HI. 
had gone to Charlemagne) and implored his assistance. In 
the autumn of 1013, Henry went with the Pope to Italy, en- 
tered Pavia without resistance, restored the Papal authority 
in Rome, and was crowned Emperor in February, 1014. He 
returned immediately afterwards to Germany; and Italy, after 
Arduin's death, the following year, remained comparatively 
quiet. 

Even before the wars with Poland came to an end, in 1018, 
other troubles broke out in the west. There were disturbances 
along the frontier in Flanders, rebellions in Luxemburg and 
Lorraine, and finally a quarrel with Burgundy, the king of 
which, Rudolf III., was Henry II.'s uncle, and had chosen him 
as his heir. This inheritance gave Germany the eastern part 
of France, nearly to the Mediterranean, and the greater portion 
of Switzerland. But the Burgundian nobles refused to be thus 
transferred, and did not give their consent until after Henry's 
armies had twice invaded their country. 

Finally, in 1020, when there was temporary peace through- 
out the Empire, the Cathedral at Bamberg, which the Emperor 
had taken great pride in building, was consecrated with splen- 
did ceremonies. The pops came across the Alps to be present, 
and he employed the opportunity to persuade Henry to return 



When and on what terms was the difficulty settled? What happened in 
Northern Prussia? In Italy? How did Henry act? Was his march effectual? 
When did he return to Italy, and what events followed? What other dis- 
turbances broke out in the west? What new territory did Germany acquire? 
What celebration followed peace? 



172 CONDITION OF GEKMANY. [l024. 

to Italy, and free the southern part of the peninsula from the 
B^^zantine Greeks, who had advanced as far as Capua and 
threatened Rome. The Emperor consented: in 1021 he mar- 
ched into Southern Italy with a large army, expelled the 
Greeks from the greater portion of their conquered territory, 
and then, having lost his best troops by pestilence, returned 
home. He there continued to travel to and fro, settling diffi- 
culties and observing the condition of the people. After long 
struggles, the power of the Empire seemed to be again secu- 
red ; but when he began to strengthen it by the arts of peace, 
his own strength was exhausted. He died near Gottingen, in 
the summer of 1024, and was buried in the Cathedral of Bam- 
berg. With him expired the dynasty of the Saxon Emperors, 
less pitifully, however, than that of either the Merovingian or 
Carolingian lines. 

When Otto the Great, towards the close of his reign, ne- 
glected Germany and occupied himself with establishing his 
dominion in Italy, he prepared the way for the rapid decline 
of the Imperial power at home, in the hands of his succes- 
sors. The reigning Dukes, Counts, and even the petty feudal 
lords, no longer watched and held subordinate, soon became 
practically independent: except in Friesland, Saxony and the 
Alps, the people had no voice in political matters; and thus 
the growth of a general national sentiment, such as had been 
fostered by Charlemagne and Henry I., was again destroyed. 
In proportion as the smaller States were governed as if they 
were separate lands, their populations became separated in 
feeling and interest. Henry II. tried to be an Emperor of 
Germany: he visited Italy rather on account of what he be- 
lieved to be the duties of his office than from natural incli- 
nation to reign there ; but he was not able to restore the same 
authority, at home, as Otto the Great had exercised. 

Henry II. was a pious man, and favored the Roman Church 
in all practicable ways. He made numerous and rich grants 



What did the Pope demand? When did Henry march to Southern Italy, 
and with what result? What was now the condition of the Empire? When 
and where did Henry die? What perished with him? What did Otto the 
Great's policy bring about? What was the state of national sentiment? What 
did Henry endeavor to do? Wherein did lie fail? 



1024. J ELECTION OF A NEW EMPEROB. 173 

ot land to churches and monasteries, but always with the 
reservation of his own rights , as sovereign. After his death 
he was made a Saint, by order of the Pope, but he failed to 
live, either as Saint or Emperor, in the traditions of the 
people. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE FRANK EMPEROES, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY IV. 

(1024-1106.) 

Konrad II. elected Emperor. — Movements against him. — Journey to Italy.— 
Revolt of Ernest of Suabia. — Burgundy attached to the Empire.— Siege of 
Milan.— Konrad's Death. — Henry III. succeeds. — Temporary Peace. — Cor- 
ruptions in the Church.— The "Truce of God." — Henry Ill's Coronation 
in Rome.— Rival Popes. — New Troubles in Germany. — Second Visit to 
Italy.— Return and Death.— Henry IV. 's Childhood.— His Capture.— Arch- 
bishops Hanno and Adalbert.- Henry IV. begins to reign. — Revolt and 
Slaughter of the Saxons.— Pope Gregory VII.— His Character and Policy. 
— Henry IV. excommunicated. — Movement against him. — He goes to Italy. 
—His Humiliation at Canossa. — War with Rudolf of Suabia. — Henry IV. 
besieges Rome. — Death of Gregory VII.— Rebellions of Henry IV. 's Sons. 
— His Capture, Abdication and Death. — The First Crusade. 

On the 4 th of September, 1024, the German nobles, clergy 
and people came together on the banks of the Rhine, near 
Mayence, to elect a new Emperor. There were fifty or sixty 
thousand persons in all, forming two great camps: on the 
western bank of the river were the Lorrainese and the Khine- 
Franks, on the eastern bank the Saxons, Suabians, Bavarians 
and German-Franks. There were two prominent candidates 
for the throne, but neither of them belonged to the established 
reigning houses, the members of which seemed to be so jealous 
of one another that they mutually destroyed their own 
chances. The two wlio were brought forward were cousina, 
both named Konrad , and both great-grandsons of Duke Kon- 



"What was his character for piety? What distinction was conferred on 
him? 

When and where was the election for Emperor held ? 



J 74 KO^'RAD II. [l024. 

rad, Otto the Great*s son-in-law, who fell so gallantly in the 
great battle with the Hungarians, in 955. 

For five days the claims of the two were canvassed by the 
electors. The elder Konrad had married Gisela, the widow 
of Duke Ernest of Suabia, which gave him a somewhat higher 
place among the princes; and therefore after the cousins had 
agreed that each would accept the other's election as valid 
and final, the votes turned to his side. The people, who were 
present merely as spectators (for they had now no longer any 
part in the election), hailed the new monarch with shouts of 
joy, and he was immediately crowned king of Germany in the 
Cathedral of Mayence. 

Konrad — who was Konrad II. in the list of German Em- 
perors — had no subjects of his own to support him , like his 
Saxon predecessors: his authority rested upon his own ex- 
perience, ability and knowledge of statesmanship. But his 
queen, Gisela, was a woman of unusual intelligence and energy, 
and she faithfully assisted him in his duties. He was a 
man of stately and commanding appearance, and seemed ^o 
well fitted for his new dignity that when he made the usual 
journey through Germany, neither Dukes nor people hesitated 
to give him their allegiance. Even the nobles of Lorraine, 
who were dissatisfied with his election, found it prudent to 
yield without serious opposition. 

The death of Henry 11. , nevertheless , was the signal for 
three threatening movements against the Empire. In Italy 
the Lombards rose, and, in their hatred of what they now con- 
sidered to be a foreign rule (quite forgetting their own Ger- 
man origin) , they razed to the ground the Imperial palace at 
Pa via: in Burgundy, king Rudolf declared that he would re- 
sist Konrad's claim to the sovereignty of the country, which, 
being himself childless, he had promised to Henry II. ; and in 
Poland, Boleslaw, who now called himself king , declared that 
his former treaties with Germany were no longer binding upon 
him. Bat Konrad II. was favored by fortune. The Polish 



W^ho were the two prominent candidates? Which was elected? Upon 
what did his authority rest? How was he received? What followed tlie 
death of Henry II? What did the Lombards do? What was King Rudolf 
of Burgundy's course? What that of the king of Poland? 



176 KONKAD II 's VISIT TO ITALY. [l027. 

king (lied, and the power wliicli lie had built up — for his king- 
dom , like that of the Goths , reached from the Baltic to the 
Danube, from the Elbe to Central Russia — was again shat- 
tered by the quarrels of his sons. In Burgund}^, Duke Rudolf 
w^as without heirs, and finally found himself compelled to re- 
cognize the German sovereign as his successor. With Canute, 
who was then king of Denmark and England, Konrad II. 
made a treaty of peace and friendship, restoring Schlesw^ig to 
the Danish crown, and re-adopting the river Eider as the 
boundary. 

In the spring of 1026, Konrad went to Italy. Pavia shut 
her gates against him, but those of Milan were opened, and 
the Lombard Bishops and nobles came to offer him homage, 
lie was crowned with the iron crown, and during the course 
of the year, all the cities in Northern Italy — even Pavia, which 
promised to rebuild the Imperial palace — acknowledged his 
sway. In March, 1027, he went to Rome and was crowned 
Emperor by the Pope, John XIX., one of the young Counts of 
Tusculum, who had succeeded to the Papacy as a boy of 
twelve! King Canute and Rudolf of Burgundy w^ere present 
at the ceremony, and Konrad betrothed his son Henry to the 
Danish princess Gunhilde, daughter of the former. 

After the coronation, the Emperor paid a rapid visit to 
Southern Italy, where the Normans had secured a foothold ten 
years before, and, by defending the country against the Greeks 
and Saracens, were rapidly making themselves its rulers. He 
found it easier to accept them as vassals than to drive them 
out, but in so doing he added a new and turbulent element to 
those which already distracted Italy. However, there was now 
external quiet, at least, and he went back to Germany. 

Here his step-son, Ernest II. of Suabia, who claimed the 
crown of Burgundy, had already risen in rebellion against him. 
He was not supported, even by his own people, and the Em- 
peror imprisoned him in a strong fortress until the Empress 
Gisela, by her prayers, procured his liberation. Konrad offered 



How was the power of Poland weakened? "What happened in Burgundy? 
When did Konrad II. go to Italy, and how was he received? When was he 
crowned Emperor, and by whom? Who were present? How did Koniad II- 
treat the Normans? Who rose in rcberion against him? 



1032.1 HE BECOMES KING OF BUEGDNDY. 177 

to give him back his Diikedom, provided he would capture 
and deliver up his intimate friend, Count Werner of Kyburg, 
who was supposed to exercise an evil influence over him. 
Ernest refused, sought his friend, and the two after living for 
some time as outlaws in the Black Forest, at last fell in a conflict 
with the Imperial troops. The sympathies of the people were 
turned to the young Duke by his hard fate and tragic death, 
and during the Middle Ages the narrative poem of "Ernest 
of Suabia" was sung everywhere throughout Germany. 

Konrad II. next undertook a campaign against Poland, 
which was wholly unsuccessful: he was driven back to the 
Elbe with great losses. Before he could renew the war, he 
was called upon to assist Count Albert of Austria (as the Ba- 
varian "East-Mark" along the Danube must henceforth be cal- 
led) in a war against Stephen, the first Christian king of Hun- 
gary. The result was a tr-eaty of peace, which left him free to 
march once more against Poland and reconquer the provinces 
which Henry II. had granted to Boleslaw. The remaining task 
of his reign, the attachment of Burgundy to the German Em- 
pire, was also accomplished without any great difficulty. King 
Rudolf, before his death in 1032, sent his crown and sceptre 
to Konrad II., in fulfilment of a promise made when they met 
at Rome, six years before. Although Count Odo of Cham- 
pagne, Rudolf's nearest relative, disputed the succession, and 
aJl southern Burgundy espoused his cause, he was unable to 
resist the Emperor. The latter was crowned King of Burgundy 
at Payerne, in Switzerland, and two years later received the 
homage of nearly all the clergy and nobles of the country in 
Lyons. 

At that time Burgundy comprised the whole valley of the 
Rhone, from its cradle in the Alps to the Mediterranean, the 
half of Switzerland , the cities of Dijon and Besangon and the 
territory surrounding them. All this now became, and for 



What happened to Ernest? On what terms was pardon offered? What 
was his fate? What poem was written about him? What did Konrad next 
undertake, and with what success? Wliy was he called away? How did lie 
succeed afterwards? How was Burgundy attached to the Empire? Who dis- 
puted tJie succession? Where was Konrad crowned? What territory did Bur- 
gimdy tJien comprise? 



178 TKOUBLE WITH MILAN. [l037. 

some centuries remained , a part of the German Empire. Its 
relation to the latter, however, resembled that of the Lom- 
bard Kingdom in Italy: its subjection was acknowledged, it 
was obliged to furnish troops in special emergencies, but it 
preserved its own institutions and laws, and repelled any 
closer political union. The continual intercourse of its people 
with those of France slowly obliterated the original differences 
between them, and increased the hostility of the Burgundians 
to the German sway. But the rulers of that day were not 
wise enough to see very far in advance, and the sovereignty 
of Burgundy was temporarily a gain to the German power. 

Early in 1037 Konrad was called again to Italy by com- 
plaints of the despotic rule of the local governors, especially 
of the Archbishop Heribert of Milan. This prelate resisted 
his authority, incited the people of Milan to support his pre- 
tensions, and became, in a short time, the leader of a serious 
revolt. The Emperor deposed him, prevailed upon the Pope, 
Benedict IX., to place him under the ban of the Church, and 
besieged Milan with all his forces; but in vain. The Bishop 
defied both Emperor and Pope: the city was too strongly for- 
tified to be taken, and out of this resistance grew the idea of 
independence which was afterwards developed in the Italian 
Republics, until the latter weakened, wasted, and finally des- 
troyed the authority of the German (or "Roman") Emperors 
in Italy. Konrad was obliged to return home without having 
conquered Archbishop Heribert and the Milanese. 

In the spring of 1039 he died suddenly at Utrecht, aged 
sixty, and was buried in the Cathedral at Speyer, which he 
had begun to build. He was a very shrewd and intelligent 
ruler, who planned better than he was able to perform. He 
certainly greatly increased the Imperial power during his life, 
by recognizing the hereditary rights of the smaller princes, 
and replacing the chief reigning Dukes , whenever circum- 
stances rendered it possible, by members of his own family. 



"What -was its relation to the Empire? What change gradually took place 
in the people? When was Konrad again called to Italy, and why? How did 
lie proceed against the Archbishop? What was the result, and what came of 
it? When and where did Konrad die? What was his character as a ruler? 
How did he increase the Imperial power? 



1039.J DEMOEALIZATION OF THE CHUKCH. 179 

As the selection of the bishops and archbishops remained iu 
his hands , the clergy were of course his immediate dependents. 
It was their interest, as well as that of the common people 
among whom knowledge and the arts were beginning to take 
root, that peace should be preserved between the different 
German States, and this could only be done by making the 
Emperor's authority paramount. Nevertheless, Konrad IT. was 
never popular: a historian of the times says "no one sighed 
when his sudden death was announced." 

His son, Henry III.; already crowned king of Germany as a 
boy, now mounted the throne. He was23 years old, distinguished 
for bodily as well as mental qualities, and was apparently 
far more competent to rule than many of his predecessors had 
been. Germany was quiet, and he encountered no opposition. 
The first five years of his reign brought him wars with Bohe- 
mia and Hungary, but in both, in spite of some reverses at 
the beginning, he was successful. Bohemia was reduced to 
obedience; a part of the Hungarian territory was annexed to 
Austria, and the king , Peter , as well as Duke Casimir of Po- 
land, acknowledged themselves dependents of the German Em- 
pire. The Czar of Muscovy (as Russia was then called) offered 
Henry, after the death of Queen Gunhilde, a princess of liis 
family as a wife; but he declined, and selected, instead, Agnes 
of Poitiers, sister of the Duke of Aquitaine. 

But, although the condition of Germany, and, indeed, of 
the greater part of Europe , was now more settled and peace- 
ful than it had been for a long time, the consequences of the 
previous wars and disturbances were very severely felt. The 
land had been visited both by pestilence and famine, and there 
was much suffering; there was also notorious corruption in 
the Church and in civil government ; the demoralization of the 
Popes, followed by that of the Romans, and then of the Ita- 
lians, had spread like an infection over all Christendom. When 
things seemed to be at their worst, a change for the better 



What was the interest of the clergy and the people? What was written 
of Konrad II. ? Who succeeded him? How old was he, and how was he 
qualified? What happened in the first five years of his reign? How did he 
quell the troubles? What offer was made to him, and by whom? What was 
now the condition of Germany? Of the Church and government? 



180 "the peace of god." [i040. 

was instituted in a most unexpected quarter and in a very 
singular manner. 

In the monastery of Cluny, in Burgundy, the monks, under 
the leadership of their Abbot, Odilo, determined to introduce 
a sterner, a more pious and Christian spirit into the life of 
the age. They began to preach what they called the treuga 
Dei, the "truce" or "peace of God," according to which, from 
every Wednesday evening until the next Monday morning, all 
feuds or fights were forbidden throughout the land. Several 
hundred monasteries in France and Burgundy joined the 
"Congregation of Cluny"; the Church accepted the idea of 
the "peace of God," and the worldly rulers were called upon to 
enforce it. Henry III. saw in this new movement an agent 
which might be used to his own advantage no less than for 
the general good, and he favored it as far as lay in his power. 
He summoned a Diet of the German princes, urged the 
measure upon them in an eloquent speech, and set the example 
by proclaiming a full and free pardon to all who had been his 
enemies. The change was too sudden to be acceptable to 
many of the princes, but they obeyed as far as convenient, 
and the German peojDle, almost for the first time in their 
history, enjoyed a general peace and security. 

The "Congregation of Cluny" preached also against the 
universal simony, by which all clerical dignities were bought 
and sold. Priests, abbots, bishops, and even in some cases, 
Popes, were accustomed to buy their appointment, and the 
power of the Church was thus often exercised by the most 
unworthy hands. Henry III. saw the necessity of a reform ; 
he sought out the most pious, pure and intelligent priests, and 
made them abbots and bishops, refusing all payments or pre- 
sents. He then undertook to raise the Papal power out of the 
deplorable condition into which it had fallen. There were then 
three rival Popes in Rome, each of whom officially excommuni- 
cated and cursed the others and their followers. 



What movement suddenly commenced? What was it called? What moa- 
Bure was advocated? What was the effect of the movement? How did 
Henry III. receive it? What example did he set? How were the German 
people benefited? What corrupt practice prevailed in the Church? How did 
Henry III. attempt a reform? In what condition was the Papal power? 



1046.] APPOINTMENT OP POPES. 181 

In the summer of 1046, Henry III. crossed the Alps with 
a magnificent retinue. The quarrels between the nobles and 
the people, in the cities of Lombardy, were compromised at 
his approach, and he found order and submission everywhere. 
He called a Synod, which was held at Sutri, an old Etruscan 
town, 30 miles north of Rome, and there, with the consent of 
the Bishops, deposed all three of the Popes, appointing the 
Bishop of Bamberg to the vacant office. The latter took the 
Papal chair under the name of Clement II. and the very same 
day crowned Henry HI. as Roman Emperor. To the Roman 
people this seemed no less a bargain than the case of Otto III., 
and they grew more than ever impatient of the rule of both 
Emperor and Pojdo. Their republican instincts', although re- 
pressed by a fierce and powerful nobility, were kept alive by 
the examples of Venice and Milan, and they dreamed as ar- 
dently of a free Rome in the twelfth century as in the 
nineteenth. 

Up to this time the Roman clergy and people had taken 
part, so far as the mere forms were concerned, in the election 
of the Popes. They were now compelled (of course very un- 
willingly) to give up this ancient right, and allow the Em- 
peror to choose the candidate, who was then sure to be elected 
by Bishops of Imperial appointment. In fact, during the nine 
remaining years of Henry III.'s reign, he selected three other 
Popes, Clement II. and his first two successors having all died 
suddenly, probably from poison, after very short reigns. But 
this was the end of absolute German authority and Roman 
submission: within thirty years, the Christian world beheld a 
spectacle of a totally opposite character. 

Henry III. visited Southern Italy, confirmed the Normans 
in their rule, as his father had done, and then returned to Ger- 
many. He had reached the climax of his power, and the very 
means he had taken to secure it now involved him in troubles 
which gradually weakened his influence in Germany. He was 



"When did he visit Italy? How was he received? Where did he call a 
Synod, and what was done? What followed the appointment? How did the 
Roman people regard it? What kept their republican feelings alive? What 
right did they lose? How many other Popes did Henry III. select? What 
else did he do in Italy? 



182 EVENTS IN GEKMANY. [l050. 

generous , but improvident and reckless : he bestowed prin- 
cipalities on personal friends , regardless of hereditary claims 
or the wishes of the people, and gave away large sums of 
money, which were raised by imposing hard terms upon the 
tenants of the crown-lands. A new war with Hungary, and the 
combined revolt of Godfrey of Lorraine , Baldwin of Flanders 
and Dietrich of Holland against him, diminished his mil- 
itary resources; and even his success, at the end of four weary 
years, did not add to his renown. Leo IX. , the third Pope of 
his appointment, was called upon to assist him by hurling 
the ban of the Church against the rebellious princes. He also 
called to his assistance Danish and English fleets which assailed 
Holland and Flanders, while he subdued Godfrey of Lorraine. 
The latter soon afterwards married the widowed Countess 
Beatrix of Tuscany, and thus became ruler of nearly all Italy 
between the Po and the Tiber. 

By the year 1051 , all the German States except Saxony 
were governed by relatives or personal friends of the Emperor. 
In order to counteract the power of Bernhard, Duke of the 
Saxons, of whom he was jealous, he made another friend, Adal- 
bert, Archbishop of Bremen , with authority over priests and 
churches in Northern Germany, Denmark, Scandinavia and 
even Iceland. He also built a stately palace at Goslar , at the 
foot of the Hartz Mountains, and made it as often as possible 
his residence, in order to watch the Saxons. Both these 
measures, however, increased his unpopularity with the Ger- 
man people. 

Leo IX., in 1054, marched against the Normans who were 
threatening the southern border of the Koman territory, but 
was defeated and taken prisoner. The victors treated him with 
all possible reverence, and he soon saw the policy of making 
friends of such a bold and warlike people. A treaty of peace 
was concluded, wherein the Normans acknowledged themselves 



How was his influence in Germany weakened? What new war and re- 
bellion occurred? Whom did he call to his assistance? What became of 
Godfrey of Lorraine? What was accomplished, by the year 1051? How did 
the Emperor attempt to counteract the Saxon power? Where did he build a 
palace, and why? What effect had these measures? What happened to Pope 
Leo IX., and when? How was the Pope treated? 



1056.] DEATH OF HENRY III. 183 

dependents of the Papal power: no notice was taken of the 
fact that they had already acknowledged that of the German- 
Roman Emperors. This event, and the increasing authority of 
his old enemy, Godfrey, in Tuscany, led Henry HI. to visit 
Italy again in 1055. Although he held the Diet of Lombardy 
and a grand review on the Roncalian plains near Piacenza, he 
accomplished nothing by his journey : he did not even visit Rome. 
Leo IX. died the same year, and Henry appointed a new Pope, 
Victor IL, who, like his predecessor, became an instrument in 
the hands of Hildebrand of Savona, a monk of Ckmy, who was 
even then, although few suspected it, the real head and ruler 
of the Christian world. 

The Emperor discovered that a plot had been formed to 
assassinate him on his way to Germany. This danger over, 
he had an interview with king Henri of France, which became 
so violent that he challenged the latter to single combat. 
Henri avoided the issue by marching away during the follow- 
ing night. The Emperor retired to his palace at Goslar, in 
October, 1056, where he received a visit from Pope Victor IL 
He was broken in health and hopes , and the news of a defeat 
of his army by the Slavonians in Prussia is supposed to have 
hastened his end. He died during the month, not yet 40 years 
old, leaving a boy of six as his successor. 

The child, Henry IV., had already been crowned King of 
Germany, and his mother, the Empress Agnes, was chosen 
regent during his minority. The Bishop of Augsburg was her 
adviser, and her first acts were those of prudence and recon- 
ciliation. Peace was concluded with Godfrey of Lorraine and 
Baldwin of Flanders, minor troubles in the States were quieted, 
and the Empire enjoyed the promise of peace. But the Em- 
press, who was a woman of a weak, yielding nature, was soon 
led to make appointments which created fresh troubles. The 
reigning princes used the opportunity to make themselves 



When did Henry III. return to Italy? What did he do? Who was the chief 
Counsellor of the Popes? What plot was formed? What happened between 
Henry III. and Henri of France? What did the latter do? What was the 
last event in Henry III.'s life? When did he die? Wlio succeeded him, and 
who was regent? Who was the Empress's adviser, and what was done? What 
troubles arose in Germany? 

9 



184 HEXE.Y IV. CAREIED OFF. [lOG2, 

more independent, and tlieir mutual jealousy and hostility in- 
creased in proportion as they became stronger. The nobles 
and people of Rome renewed their attempt to have a share iii 
the choice of a Pope ; and, although the appointment was fin- 
ally left to the Empress, the Pope of her selection, Nicholas IL, 
instead of beinnr subservient to the interests of the German 
Empire, allied himself with the Normans and with the re- 
publican party in the cities of Lombardy. 

At home, the troubles of the Empress Agnes increased 
year by year. A conspiracy to murder the young Henry IV. 
was fortunately discovered; then a second, at the head of 
which was the Archbishop Hanno of Cologne, was formed, to 
take him from his mother's care and give him into stronger 
hands. In 1062, when Henry IV. was twelve years old, Hanno 
visited the Empress at Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine. After a 
splendid banquet, he invited the young king to look at his 
vessel, which lay near the palace ; but, no sooner had the latter 
stepped upon the deck, than the conspirators seized their oars 
and pushed into the stream. Henry boldly sprang into the 
water; Count Ekbert of Brunswick sprang after him, and both, 
after nearly drowning in their struggle, were taken on board. 
The Empress stood on the shore, crying for help, and her 
people sought to intercept the vessel, but in vain: the plot 
was successful. A meeting of reigning princes, soon after- 
wards, appointed Archbishop Hanno guardian of the young king. 

He was a hard , stern master , and Henry IV. became his 
enemy for life. Within a year, Hanno was obliged to yield his 
place to Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, who was as much 
too indulgent as the former had been too rigid. The jealousy 
of the other priests and princes was now turned against Adal- 
bert, and his position became so difficult that in 1065, when 
Henry IV. was only fifteen years old, he presented him to an 
Imperial Diet, held at Worms, and there invested him with 
the sword, the token of manhood. Thenceforth Henry reigned 
in his own name, although Adalbert's guardianship was not 



What happened In Italy? What conspiracies were formed? When and 
where was the second carried out ? Describe wliat happened. Who was ap- 
pointed guardian, and by whom? Who was tlie second guardian? What were 
iJieir natures? How and wlien did Adalbert resign his charge? 



10G6.] 



HENRY IV. AND HIS WIFE. 



185 



given up until a year later. Then he was driven away by a 
union of the other Bishops and the reigning princes, and his 
rival, Hanno, was forced, as chief counsellor, upon tjie angry 
and unwilling king. 

The next year Henry was married to the Italian princess, 
Bertha, to whom his father had betrothed him as a cliiJd. Be- 




SEIZtTEE OF TUE YOUNG KING HENEY IV. 



fore three years had elapsed, he demanded to be divorced from 
her; but, although the Archbishop of Mayence and the Im- 
perial Diet were persuaded to consent, the Pope, Alexander II., 
following the advice of his Chancellor, Hildebrand of Savona, 
refused his sanction. Henry finally decided to take back his 
wife, whose beauty, patience and forgiving nature compelled 
liim to love her at last. About the same time, his father's 



Whom did Henry IV. marry ? What did ho demand , and who prevontoc* 
iti^ What was the end of the difficultv? 



186 DIFFICULTY WITH THE SAXONS. [l074. 

enemy and his own, Godfrey of Lorraine and Tuscany, died; 
another enemy. Otto, Duke of Bavaria, fell into his hands, 
and was deposed; and there only remained Magnus, Duke of 
the Saxons, who seemed hostile to his authority. The events 
of Henry's youth and the character of his education made him 
impatient and mistrustful : he inherited the pride and arbitrary 
will of his faf her and grandfather, without their prudence : he 
surrounded himself with wild and reckless princes of his own 
age, whose counsels too often influenced his policy. 

No Frank Emperor could be popular with the fierce, in- 
dependent Saxons ; but when it was rumored that Henry IV. 
had sought an alliance with the Danish king, Swen, against 
them, — when he called upon them, at the same time, to march 
against Poland, — their suspicions were aroused, and the wliole 
population rose in opposition. To the number of 60,000, 
headed by Otto, the deposed Duke of Bavaria (who was a 
Saxon noble), they marched to the Harzburg, the Imperial 
castle near Goslar. Henry rejected their conditions: the castle 
was besieged, and he escaped with difficulty, accompanied 
only by a few followers. He endeavored to persuade the other 
German princes to support him, but they refused. They even 
entered into a conspiracy to dethrone him ; the Bishops favored 
the plan, and his cause seemed nearly hopeless. 

In this emergency the cities along the Rhine, which were 
very weary of priestly rule, and now saw a chance to streng- 
then themselves by assisting the Emperor, openly befriended 
him. They were able, however, to give him but little military 
support, and in February, 1074, he was compelled to con- 
clude a treaty with the Saxons, which granted them almost 
everything they demanded , even to the demolition of the for- 
tresses he had built on their territory. But, in the flush of 
victory, they also tore down the Imperial palace at Goslar, the 
Church, and the sepulchre wherein Henry HI. was buried. This 
placed them in the wrong, and Henry IV. marched into Saxony 



"What became of his principal enemies? "What was his character, and how 
did he act? What German people rose against him? How strong were they, 
and who was their leader? What was their first movement, and its result? 
What did they next plan, and who favored it? Who supported the Emperor? 
What treaty did he make? What did the Saxons then do? 



1073.] 



POPE GBEGOKY YII. 



187 



with an immense army which he had called together for the 
purpose of invading Hungary. Tlie Saxons armed themselves 
to resist, but they were attacked when unprepared , defeated 
after a terrible battle, and their land laid waste with fire and 
sword. Thus were again verified, a thousand years later, tlie 
words of Tiberius , — that it was not necessary to attempt the 
conquest of the Germans, for, if let alone , they vyould destroy 
themselves. 

The power of Henry IV. seemed now to be assured ; but 
the lowest humiliation which ever befel a monarch was in store 
for him. The monk of Cluny, 
Hildebrand of Savona, who 
had inspired the policy of 
four Popes, during twenty- 
four years, became Pope 
himself in 1073, under the 
name of Gregory VH. He 
was a man of iron will and 
inexhaustible energy, wise 
and far-seeing beyond any of 
his contemporaries, and un- 
questionably sincere in his 
aims. He remodelled the 
Papal office, gave it a new 
character and importance, 
and left his own indelible 
mark on the Church of Rome 
from that day to this. For 
the first five hundred years after Christ the Pope had been merely 
the Bishop of Rome ; for the second five hundred years, he had 
been the nominal head of the Church , but subordinate to the 
political rulers, and dependent upon them. Gregory YH. 
determined to make the office a spiritual power, above all 
other powers, with sole and final authority over the bishops, 
priests and other servants of the Church. It was to be a re- 




POPE GBEGOKY VII. 



What was Henry's course? How did the matter terminate? What was 
Btill in store for Henry? Who became Pope, when, and under what name? 
What sort of a man was he? What did he accomplish? What had been the 
position of the Pope, and for how long? 



188 THE pope's course TOWARDS HENRY IV. [l075. 

ligioua Empire, existing by Divine right, independent of the 
fate of nations or the will of khigs. 

He relied mainly upon two measures, to accomplish this 
change, — the suppression of simony and the celibacy of the 
priesthood. He determined that the priests should belong 
wholly to the Church; that the human ties of wife and chil- 
dren should be denied to them. This measure had been pro- 
posed before, but never carried into effect, on account of the 
opposition of the married Bishops and priests ; but the increase 
of the monastic orders and their greater influence at this time 
favored Gregory's design. Even after celibacy was proclaimed, 
as a law of the Church, in 1074, it encountered the most vio- 
lent opposition, and the law was not universally obeyed by 
the priests until two or three centuries later. 

In 1075, Gregory promulgated a law against simony, in 
which he not only prohibited the sale of all offices of the 
Church, but claimed that the Bishops could only receive the 
ring and crozier, the symbols of their authority, from the 
hands of the Pope. The same year, he sent messengers to 
Henry IV., calling upon him to enforce this law in Germany, 
under penalty of excommunicatiom The surprise and anger 
of the king may easily be imagined: it was a language which 
no Pope had ever before dared to use towards the Imperial 
power. Indeed, when we consider that Gregory at this time 
was quarrelling with the Normans, the Lombard cities and 
the king of France , and that a party in Rome was becoming 
hostile to his rule, the act seems almost that of a madman. 

Henry lY. called a Synod, which met at Worms. The 
Bishops, at his request, unanimously declared that Gregory YH. 
was deposed from the Papacy, and a message was sent to the 
people of Rome, ordering them to drive him from the city. 
But, just at that time, Gregory had put down a conspiracy of 
the nobles to assassinate him, by calling the people to his aid, 
and he was temporarily popular with the latter. He answered 



"What did Grepfory VII. try to make the office? On what measures did he 
rely? Why had the celibacy of tlie priests not been enforced? What other 
law was proclaimed, and when? What message did the Pope sent to Henry TV.? 
What was Gregory's situation at this time? W^hat did Henry do? "What course 
did the Bishops take? What happened to Gregory? 



107H.J EXCOMMUNICATION OF HENKY IV. 189 

Henry IV. with the ban of excommunication, — which would 
have been harmless enough, but for the deep-seated discontent 
of the Germans with the king's rule. The Saxons, whom he 
had treated with the greatest harshness and indignity, since 
their subjection, immediately found a pretext to throw off their 
allegiance: the other German States showed a cold and mistrust- 
ful temper, and their princes failed to come together when 
Henry called a National Diet. In the mean time the ambas- 
sadors of Gregory were busy, and the petty courts were filled 
with secret intrigues for dethroning the king and electing a 
new one. 

In October, 1076, finally, a Convention of princes was held 
on the Rhine, near Mayence. Henry was not allowed to be 
present, but he sent messengers, offering to yield to their de- 
mands if they would only guard the dignity of the crown. The 
princes rejected all his offers, and finally adjourned to meet in 
Augsburg early in 1077, when the Pope was asked to be pre- 
sent. As soon as Henry IV. learned that Gregory had accepted 
the invitation, he was seized with a panic as unkingly as his 
former violence. Accompanied only by a small retinue, he 
hastened to Burgundy, crossed Mont Cenis in the dead of 
winter, encountering many sufferings and dangers on the way, 
and entered Italy with the single intention of meeting Pope 
Gregory and persuading him to remove the ban of the Church. 

At the news of his arrival in Lombardy, the Bisho23s and 
nobles from all the cities flocked to his support, and demanded 
only that he should lead them against the Pope. The move- 
ment was so threatening that Gregory himself, already on his 
way to Germany, halted, and retired for a time to the Castle 
of Canossa (in the Apennines, not far from Parma), which be- 
longed to his devoted friend, the Countess Matilda of Tus- 
cany. Victory was assured to Henry, if he had but grasped 
it; but he seems to have possessed no courage except when 
inspired by hate. He neglected the offered help, went to Ca- 



"What was his answer? What was the first effect of the excommunication 
in Germany? How did tlie princes act? What project was set on foot? When 
and where was a Convention held? How was Henry treated? How did the 
treatment affect him? What journey did he make, and with what purpose? 
What course did the Italians take? Where did Gregory take refuge? 



J 90 



THE HUMILIATION AT CANOSSA. 



[l077 



nossa, and, presenting himself before the gate barefoot and 
clad only in a shirt of sack-cloth, he asked to be admitted and 
pardoned as a repentant sinner. Gregory, so unexpectedly 
triumphant, prolonged for three whole days the satisfaction 




HBNBY IV. AT THE GATE Or CANOSSA. 



which he enjoyed in the king's humiliation : for three days the 
latter waited at the gate in snow and rain, before he was re- 
ceived. Then, after promising to obey the Pope, he received 
the kiss of peace, and the two took communion together in the 
castle-chapel! This was the first great victory of the Papal 



What was Henry*8 course? In what maimer was he reconciled to Grefjory? 



1084.J THE TAKING OF ROME. 191 

power: Gregory YII. paid dearly for it, but it was an event 
which could not be erased from History. It has fed the pride 
and supported the claims of the Roman Church, from that day 
to this. 

Gregory had dared to excommunicate Henry, because of 
the political conspirators against the latter; but he had not 
considered that his pardon would change those conspirators 
into enemies. The indignant Lombards turned their backs on 
Henry, the Bishops rejected the Pope's offer to release them 
from tlio ban, and the strife became more fierce and relentless 
than ever. In the meantime the German princes, encouraged 
by the Pope, proclaimed Rudolf of Suabia King in Henry^s 
place. The latter, now at last supported by the Lombards, 
hastened back to Germany. A terrible war ensued, wliich 
lasted for more than two years, and was characterized by the 
most shocking barbarities on both sides. Gregory a second 
time excommunicated the king, but without the slightest poli- 
tical effect. The war terminated in 1080 by tJhe deatJi of 
Rudolf in battle , and Henry's authority became gradually 
established throughout the land. 

His first movement, now, was against the Pope. He cros- 
sed the Alps with a large army, was crowned King of Lom- 
bardy, and then marched towards Rome. Gregory's only friend 
was the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, who resisted Henry's 
advance until the cities of Pisa and Lucca espoused his cause. 
Then he laid siege to Rome , and a long war began , during 
which the ancient city suffered more than it had endured for 
centuries. The end of the struggle was a devastation worse 
than that inflicted by Geiserich. When Henry finally gained 
possession of the city, and the Pope was besieged in the castle 
of St. Angelo , the latter released Robert Guiscard , chief of 
the Normans in Southern Italy, from the ban of excommunica- 
tion which he had pronounced against him, and called him to 
his aid. A Norman army, numbering 36,000 men, mostly Sa- 



What was the effect of the reconciliation? How did the Lombards and 
their Bishops act? The German princes? What followed, and for how long? 
What part did Gregory take? When and how did the war end? What was 
Henry's first movement, afterwards ? Who was Gregory's friend, and how did 
she act? What happened at Borne? To what course did the Pope resort? 



192 BE VOLT OF HENEY IV/S SONS. fli04. 

racens, approached Eome, and Henry was compelled to retreat 
The Pope was released, but his allies burned all the city be- 
tween the Lateran and the Coliseum, slaughtered thousands 
of the inhabitants, carried away thousands as slaves, and left 
a desert of blood and ruin behind them. Gregory YII. did not 
dare to remain in Rome after their departure: he accompanied 
them to Salerno, and there died in exile, in 1085. 

Henry TV. immediately ajDpointed a new Pope, Clement HL, 
by whom he was crowned Emperor in St. Peter's. After Gre- 
gory's death, the Normans and the French selected another 
Pope, Urban IL, and until both died, fifteen years afterwards, 
they and their partisans never ceased fighting. The Emperor 
Hemy, however, who retui-ned to Germany immediately after 
liis coroiiation, took little part in this quarrel. The last twenty 
years of his reign were full of trouble and misfortune. His 
eldest son, Konrad, who had lived mostly in Lombardy, was 
in 1092 persuaded to claim the crown of Italy, was acknow- 
ledged by the hostile Pope, and allied himself with his father's 
enemies. For a time he was very successful , but the move- 
ment gradually failed, and he ended his days in prison, 
in 1101. 

Henry's hopes were now turned to his younger son, Henry, 
who was of a cold, calculating, treacherous disposition. The 
political and religious foes of the Emperor were still actively 
scheming for his overthrow, and they succeeded in making the 
young Henry their instrument, as they had made liis brother 
Konrad. During the long struggles of his reign, the Emperor's 
strongest and most faithful supporter had been Frederick of 
Ilohenstaufen , a Suabian Coiuit, to whom he had given liis 
daughter in marriage, and whom he fijially made DuJce of 
Suabia. The latter died in 1104, and most of the German 
l)rinces, with the young Henry at tlieir head, arose in rebel- 
lion. For nearly a year, the country was again desolated by 
a furious civil war- but the cities along the Wiijie, wliich were 



What was tho fate of Rome? Wliat was G-regory's end? What did Henry 
then do? Who were the two Popes, and what was tlieir history ? What eh Or- 
lacterized Henry's reign? What uo.'irse did his eldest son pursue, and when^ 
What was tjie end of it? What was his younger son's character? Who ac- 
quired an influence over him? Who had been the Emperor's faithful snp- 
porter? When did tlie latter die, and -what followed? 



1106.J 



TBEACHERY OF IIENEY IV. S SON. 



193 



rapidly increasing in wealth and population, took the Em- 
perors side, as before, and enabled him to keep the field against 
his son. At last, in December, 1105, their armies lay face to 
face, near the river Moselle, and an interview took place be- 
tween the two. Father and son embraced eath other; tears 
were shed, repen- 
tance offered and 
pardon given ; then 
both set out to- 
gether for Mayence, 
where it was agreed 
that a National 
Diet should settle 
all difficulties. 

On the way, 
however, the trea- 
cherous son per- 
suaded his father to 
rest in the Castle 
ofBockelheim,there 
instantly shut the 
gates upon him and 
held him prisoner 
until he compelled 
him to abdicate. 
But, after the act, 
the Emperor suc- 
ceeded in makinghis 
escape: the people 

rallied to his support, and he was still unconquered when death 
came to end his many troubles, in Liege, in August, 1106. He 
was perhaps the most signally unfortunate o^ all the German 
Emperors. The errors of his education, the folfies and passions 
of his youth, the one fatal weakness of his manhood, were 
gradually corrected by experience ; but he could not undo their 
consequences. After he had become comparatively wise and 




PETEB THE HEBMIT. 



Who Stood by the Emperor? When, where aud how did he and his son 
meet? What was the son's next act? What was Henry IV.'s fate? When 
aud wliere did he die? What was his character, as Emperor? 



194 THE FIRST CEUSADE. [l099 

energetic, the Internal dissensions of Germany, and the con- 
flict between the Eoman Church and the Imperial power, had 
grown too strong to be suppressed by his hand. When he 
might have done right, he lacked either the knowledge or the 
will ; when he finally tried to do right, he had lost the power. 
During the latter years of his reign occurred a great histo- 
rical event, the consequences of which were most important to 
Europe, though not immediately so to Germany. Peter the 
Hermit preached a Crusade to the Holy Land for the purpose 
of conquering Jerusalem from the Saracens. The "Congrega- 
tion of Cluny" had prepared the way for this movement : one 
of the two Popes, Urban H., encouraged it, and finally Godfrey 
of Bouillon (of the Ducal family of Lorraine) put himself at 
its head. The soldiers of this, the First Crusade , came chiefly 
from France, Burgundy and Italy. Although many of them 
passed through Germany on their way to the East, they made 
few recruits among the people; but the success of the under- 
taking, the capture of Jerusalem by Godfrey in 1099, and the 
religious enthusiasm which it created, tended greatly to 
strengthen the Papal power, and also that faction in the Church 
which was hostile to Henry IV. 



TVhat occured towards the end of his reign? Who preached, and what? 
How was the movement supported, and who headed it? What countries 
furnished the soldiers? When was Jerusalem captured? What effect followed 
the success? 



1106.1 HENBY V. AS EMPEEOK. 195 



CHAPTER XVI. 

END OE THE FRANK DYNASTY, AND EISE OF THE HOHEN- 
STAUFENS.— (1106— 1152.) 

Henry V.'s Character and Course.— The Condition of Germany. — Strife con^. 
cerning the Investiture of Bishops. — Scene in St. Peter's. — Troubles in Ger- 
many and Italy. — The "Concordat of Worms." — Death of Henry V. — Ab- 
sence of National Feeling. — Papal Independence. — Lothar of Saxony chosen 
Emperor. — His Visits to Italy, and Death. — Konrad of Hohenstaufen suc- 
ceeds. — His Quarrel with Henry the Proud. — The Women of Weinsberg. 
-Welf (Guelph) and Waiblinger (Ghibelline). — The Second Crusade. — 
March to the Holy Land. — Konrad invited to Rome. — Arnold of Rrescia. 
— Konrad's Death. 

Henry Y. showed his true character immediately after his 
accession to the throne. Although he had been previously 
supported by the Papal party, he was no sooner acknowledged 
king of Germany than he imitated his father in opposing the 
claims of the Church. The new Pope, Paschalis II., had found 
it expedient to recognize the Bishops whom Henry IV. had 
appointed, but at the same time he issued a manifesto declar- 
ing that all future appointments must come from him. Henry V. 
answered this with a letter of defiance, and continued to 
select his own Bishops and abbots, which the Pope, not being 
able to resist, was obliged to sniffer. 

During the disturbed fifty years of Henry IV.'s reign, 
Burgundy and Italy had become practically independent of 
Germany ; Hungary and Poland had thrown off their depen- 
dent condition and even the Wends beyond the Elbe were no 
longer loyal to the Empire. Within the German States, the 
Imperial power was already so much weakened by the estab- 
lishment of hereditary Dukes and Counts, not related to the 
ruling family, that the king (or Emperor) exercised very little 
direct authority over the people. The crown-lands had been 
mostly either given away in exchange for assistance, or lost 
during the civil wars : the feudal system was firmly fastened 



How did Henry V. show his true character ? How did he answer the 
Pope's demands? What changes had taken place during Henry IV.'e reign? 
How was the Imperial power weakened? 



196 



HIS JOURNEY TO ITALY. 



[lUO. 



upon the country, and only a few free cities — like those in 
Italy — kept alive the ancient spirit of liberty and political 
equality. Under such a system a monarch could accomplish 

little, unless he was 




both 



wiser 



and 



stronger than the 
reigning princes 
under him : there 
was no general na- 
tional sentiment to 
which he could ap- 
peal. Henry Y. 
was cold , stern, 
heartless and un- 
principled ; but he 
inspired a whole- 
some fear among 
his princely "vas- 
sals", and kept 
them in better or- 
der than his father 
had done. 

After giving the 
first years of his 
reign to the settle- 
ment of troubles on 
the frontiers of the 
Empire, Henry V. 
prepared, in 1110, 
for a journey to 
Italy. So m.any 
followers came to 
him that when he had crossed the Alps and mustered them on 
the plains of Piacenza, there were 30,000 knights present. With 
such a force, no resistance was possible: the Lombard cities 
acknowledged him, Countess Matilda of Tuscany followed their 
example, and the Pope found it expedient to meet him in a 



HENSY V. 



What was the political condition? "What was Henry V.'s nature? 
did he leave for Italy? How was he attended? 



Whoa 



mi.] .HIS ADVENTURE IN EOME. 197 

friendly spirit. The latter was willing to crown Henry as 
Emperor, but still claimed the right of investing the Bishops. 
This Henry positively refused to grant, and, after much de- 
liberation, the Pope finally proposed a complete separation of 
Church and State, — that is, that the lands belonging to the 
Bishops and abbois, or under their government, should revert 
to the crown, and the priests themselves become merely offi- 
cials of the Church, without any secular power. Although 
the change would have been attended with some difficulty, in 
Germany, Henry consented, and the long quarrel between 
Pope and Emperor was apparently settled. 

On the 12th of February, 1111, the king entered Rome at 
the head of a magnificent procession, and was met at the gate 
of St. Peter's by the Pope, who walked with him hand in hand 
to the platform before the high altar. But when the latter 
read aloud the agreement, the Bishops raised their voices in 
angry dissent. The debate lasted so long that one of the Ger- 
man knights cried out: ''Why so many words? Our king means 
to be crowned Emperor, like Karl the Great!" The Pope refused 
the act of coronation, and was immediately made prisoner. 
The people of Home rose in arms, and a terrible fight ensued. 
Henry narrowly escaped death in the streets, and was com- 
pelled to encamp outside the city. At the end of two months, 
the resistance both of Pope and people was crushed ; he was 
crowned Emperor, and Paschalis II. gave up his claim for the 
investui-e of the Bishops. 

Henry V. returned immediately to Germany, defeated the 
rebellious Thiiringians and Saxons in 111 3, and the following 
year was married to Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England. 
This was the climax of his power and splendor: it was soon 
followed by troubles with Friesland, Cologne, Thiiringia and 
Saxony, and in the course of two years his authori^ty was set 
at nought over neai^ly all Northern Germany. Only Suabia, 



How was Henry received? "What was the Pope's course? What was finaUy 
proposed? How did Henry meet it? When and in what manner did they enter 
Rome? How did the Bishops receive the agreement? What was tlie scene 
that foUowed? What was Henry's treatment? How did the trouble end? 
When did lie return to Germany, and what first followed ? What came next ? 



198 THE CONCOBDAT OF WORMS. [ll22. 

under his nephew, Frederick of Hohenstaufen , and Duke 
Welf II. of Bavaria, remained faithful to him. 

He was obliged to leave Germany in this state and hasten 
to Italy in 1116, on account of the death of the Countess 
Matilda, who had bequeathed Tuscany to the Church, although 
she had previously acknowledged the Imperial sovereignty. 
Henry claimed and secured possession of her territory ; he then 
visited Rome, the Pope leaving the city to avoid meeting him. 
The latter died soon afterwards, and for a time a new Pope, 
of the Emperor's own appointment, was installed in the Yati- 
can. The Papal party, which now included all the French 
Bishops, immediately elected another, who excommunicated 
Henry V., but the act w^as of no consequence, and was in 
fact overlooked by Calixtus II., who succeeded to the Papal 
chair in 1118. 

The same year Henry returned to Germany, and succeeded, 
chiefly through the aid of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, in estab- 
lishing his authority. The quarrel with the Papal power 
concerning the investiture of the Bishops was still unsettled: 
the new Pope, Calixtus II., who was a Burgundian and a 
relation of the Emperor, remained in France, where his 
claims were supported. After long delays and many preli- 
minary negotiations, a Diet was held at Worms in Sep- 
tember, 1122, when the question was finally settled. The 
choice of the Bishops, and their investiture with the ring and 
crozier was given to the Pope, but the nominations were re- 
quired to be made in the Emperor's presence, and the candi- 
dates received from him their temporal power, before they 
were consecrated by the Church. This arrangement is known 
as the Concordat of Worms, It was hailed at the time as a 
fortunate settlement of a strife which had lasted for fifty years ; 
but it only»increased the difficulty by giving the German Bi- 
shops two masters, yet making them secretly dependent on 
the Pope. So long as they retained the temporal power, they 



Who remained faithful? When and why did ho return to Italy? With 
what result? What difficulty arose, in regard to the Papal power? How did 
Henry succeed in Germany ? What question was next settled? When ? Where ? 
What was the agreement? How is it termed? How did it increase the diffi- 
culty? 



1125. 



DEATH OE HENRY V. 



199 



governed according to the dictates of a foreign will, which 
was generally hostile to Germany. Then began an antagonism 
between the Church and State, which was all the more intense 
because never openly acknowledged, and which disturbs Ger- 
many even at this day. 




THE CATHEDRAIi OF WORMS. 

Pope Calixtus H. took no notice of the ban of excommuni- 
cation, but treated with Henry V. as if it had never been pro- 
nounced. The troubles in Northern Germany, however, were 
not subdued by this final peace with Eome, — a clear evidence 
that the humiliation of Henry IV. was due to political and not 
to religious causes. Henry Y. died at Utrecht, in Holland, 
in May, 1125, leaving no children, which the people believed 
to be a punishment for his unnatural treatment of his father. 



What new difficulty was then originated? How did Pope Calixtus treat 
Henry V.? When and where did Henry die? What did the people believe? 



200 ABSENCE OF NATIONAL SENTIMENT. [ll25. 

There was no one to mourn his death, for even his efforts to 
increase the Imperial authority, and thereby to create a na- 
tional sentiment among the Germans, were neutralized by his 
coldness, haughtiness and want of principle, as a man. The 
people were forced, by the necessities of their situation, to 
support their own reigning princes , in the hope of regaining 
from the latter some of their lost political rights. 

Another circumstance tended to prevent the German Em- 
perors from acquiring any fixed power. They had no capital 
city, as France already possessed in Paris : after the coronation, 
the monarch immediately commenced his *'royal ride", visiting 
all portions of the country, and receiving, personally, the alle- 
giance of the whole people. Then, during his reign , he was 
constantly migrating from one castle to another, either to settle 
local difficulties, to collect the income of his scattered estates, 
or for his own pleasure. There was thus no central point to 
which the Germans could look, as the seat of the Imperial rule : 
the Emperor was a Frank, a Saxon, a Bavarian or Suabian, 
by turns, but never permanently a German, with a national 
capital grander than any of the petty courts. 

The period of Henry V.'s death marks, also, the independence 
of the Papal power. The ^'Concordat of Worms" indirectly 
took away from the Roman (German) Emperor the claim of 
appointing the Pope, which had been exercised, from time to 
time, during nearly five hundred years. The celibacy 
of the priesthood was partially enforced by this time, and the 
Iioman Church thereby gained a new power. It was now 
able to set up an authority (with the help of France) nearly 
equal to that of the Empire. These facts must be borne in 
mind as we advance; for the secret rivalry which now began 
underlies all the subsequent history of Germany, until it came 
to a climax in the Reformation of Luther. 

Henry V. left all his estates and treasures to his nephew, 
Frederick of Ilohenstaufen, but not the crown jewels and in- 



How -were his own aims defeated? What other circumstance was un- 
fiirvnrable to tl)c Imperial power? What was the character of an Emperor's 
life? What else is marked by Henry V.'s death? Wliat change was maJe by 
the Concordat of Worms? How else did the Roman Church gain powtr? 
What effect had this on the History of Germany? 



1125.] 



LOTPIAR OF SAXONY ELECTED. 



201 



signia, which were to be bestowed by the National Diet upon 
his successor. Frederick, and his brother Konrad, Duke of 
Franconia, were the natural heirs to the crown; but, as the 
Ilohenstaufen family had stood faithfully by Henry I V. and V 




GERMAN CITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 



in their conflicts with the Pope , it was unpopular with the 
priests and reigning princes. At the Diet, the Archbishop of 
Mayence nominated Lothar of Saxony, who was chosen after 
a very stormy session. His first acts were to beg the Pope 
to confirm his election, and then to give up his right to have 



To wliom did Henry V. leave his estates? Who were the heirs to the 
crown? Why was the Hohenstaufen family unpopular? Who was chosen 
Emperor ? 



202 HIS COKONATION IN EOME. [ll33. 

the Bishops and abbots appointed in his presence. He next 
demanded of Frederick of Hohenstaufen the royal estates 
which the hitter had inherited from Henry Y. Being defeated 
in the war which followed, he strengthened his party by mar- 
rying his only daughter, Gertrude, to Henry the Proud, Duke 
of Bavaria (grandson of Duke Welf, Henry IV.'s friend, whence 
this family was called the Wclfs — Guelphs). By this marriage 
Henry the Proud became also Duke of Saxony: but a part of 
the Dukedom, called the North-mark, was separated and given 
to a Saxon noble, a friend of Lothar, named Albert the Bear. 

Lothar was called to Italy in 1132 by Innocent II., one 
of two Popes, who, in consequence of a division in the college 
of Cardinals, had been chosen at the same time. He was 
crowned Emperor in the Lateran , in June , 1133, while the 
other Pope Anaclete II. was reigning in the Vatican. He ac- 
quired theterritoryof the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, but only 
on condition of paying 400 pounds of silver annually to the 
Church. The former state of affairs was thus suddenly rever- 
sed: the Emperor acknowledged himself- a dependent of the 
temporal Papal power. When he returned to Germany, the 
same year, Lothar succeeded in subduing the resistance of the 
Hohenstaufens, and then bound the reigning princes of Ger- 
many, by oath, to keep peace for the term of twelve years. 

This truce enabled him to return to Italy for the pur- 
pose of assisting Pope Innocent, who had been expelled from 
Rome. The rival of the latter, Anaclete II., was supported 
by the Norman king, Roger II. of Sicily, who, in the summer 
of 1137, was driven out of Southern Italy by Lothar's army. 
But quarrels broke out with the Pisans, who were his allies, 
and with Pope Innocent, for whose cause he was fighting, and 
he finally set out for Germany, without even visiting Rome. 
At Trient, in the Tyrol, he was seized with a mortal sickness, 
and died on the Brenner pass of the Alps, in a shepherd's hut. 



What were bis first acts? What did he next demand? How did he 
strengthen his cause? How was Saxony divided? "When and why was ho 
called to Italy? When and where was he crowned? What did he acquire? 
Under what concession? What measure did he enforce in Germany? Why 
did he again return to Italy? Who supported the rival Pope? What was tho 
end of the expedition? Where and how did Lothar die? 



1138.] KONRAD OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 203 

His body was taken to Saxony and buried in the chapel of a 
monastery which he had founded there. 

A National Diet was called to meet in May, 1138, and 
elect a successor. Lothar's son-in-law, Henry the Proud, Duke 
of Bavaria, Saxony and Tuscany (which latter the Emperor 
had transferred also to him), seemed to have the greatest right 
to the throne; but he was already so important that the jealousy 
of the other reigning princes was excited against him. Their 
policy was, to choose a weak rather than a strong ruler, — one 
who would not interfere with their authority in their own 
lands. Konrad of Hohenstaufen took advantage of this jea- 
lousy; he courted the favor of the princes and the bishops, 
and was chosen and crowned by the latter, three months be- 
fore the time fixed for the meeting of the Diet. The move- 
ment, though in violation of all law, succeeded perfectly : a new 
Diet was called, for form's sake, and all the German princes, 
except Henry the Poud, acquiesced in Konrad's election. 

In order to maintain his place, the new king was compelled 
to break the power of his rival. He therefore declared that 
Henry the Proud should not be allowed to govern two lands 
at the same time, and gave all Saxony to Albert the Bear. 
When Henry rose in resistance, Konrad proclaimed that he 
had forfeited Bavaria, which he gave to Leopold of Austria. In 
this emergency, Henry the Proud called upon the Saxons to 
help him, and had raised a considerable force when he suddenly 
died, towards the end of the year 1139. His brother, Welf, 
continued the struggle in Bavaria, in the interest of his young 
son, Henry, afterwards called "the Lion". He attempted to 
raise the siege of the town of Weinsberg, which was beleagured 
by Konrad's army, but failed. The tradition relates that 
when the town was forced to surrender, the women sent a 
deputation to Konrad, begging to be allowed to leave with 
such goods as they could carry on their backs. When this was 
granted and the gates were opened, they came out, carrying 



When vas the Diet called? Who hard claim to the throne? Wliy was he 
not favored? Who took advantage of this, and how did he succeed? Who 
acquiesced in the election? What was Konrad of Hohenstaufen compelled to 
do? How did he treat Henry the Proud? What was the latter's fate? What 
was his eon called? 



204 GUELPH AND GHIBELLINE. [lliO. 

their husbands, sons or brothers as their dearest possessions. 
The fame of this deed of the women of Weinsberg has gone 
all over the world. 

In this struggle, for the first time, the names of Welf and 
Waihllnger (from the little town of Waiblingen, in Wiirtem- 
berg, which belonged to the Hohenstaufens) were first used as 
party cries in battle. In the Italian language they became 
"Guelph" and ^'Ghibelline", and for hundreds of years they 
retained a far more intense and powerful significance than the 
names "Whig" and "Tory" in England. The term Welf 
(Guelph) very soon came to mean the party of the Pope, and 
Waihlinger (Ghibelline) that of the German Emperor. The 
end of this first conflict was, that in 1142, young Henry the 
Lion (great-grandson of Duke Welf of Bavaria) was allowed 
to be Duke of Saxony. From him descended the later Dukes 
of Brunswick and Hannover, who retained the family name of 
Welf, or Guelph, which, through George I., is also that of the 
royal family of England at this day. Albert the Bear was 
obliged to be satisfied with the North -mark, which was ex- 
tended to the eastward of the P]lbe and made an independent 
principality. He called himself Markgraf (Border Count) of 
Brandenburg, and thus laid the basis of a new State, which, 
in the course of centuries, developed into Prussia. 

About this time the Christian monarchy in Jerusalem be- 
gan to be threatened with overthrow by the Saracens, and the 
Pope, Eugene III., responded to the appeals for help from the 
Holy Land, by calling for a Second Crusade. He not only 
promised forgiveness of all sins , but released the volunteers 
from payment of their debts and whatever obligations they 
might have contracted under oath. France was the first to 
answer the call: then Bernard of Clairvaux (St. Bernard, in 
the Roman Church), visited Germany and made passionate ap- 
peals to the people. The first effect of his speeches was the 



"What happened at the siege of Weinsberg? "What battle-cries were then 
first used? What were they called in Italy? What did they come to signify? 
What and when was the end of the conflict? Who are descended from the 
Welfs? What was Albert the Bear's territory? What did he call himself? 
Wljat did his state become? What happened in the East, at this time ? What 
did the Pope promise to the Crusaders? Who preached in favor of the Crusade? 



1U7.J 



THE SECOND CRUSADE, 



9r\' 



05 



plunder and murder of the Jews in the cities along the Rhine; 
then the slow German blood was roused to enthusiasm for 




CRUSADERS AND SARACENS IN BATTLE. 



the rescue of the Holy Land, and the impulse became so great 
that king Konrad was compelled to join in the movement, 
ilis nephew, the red-bearded Frederick of Suabia, also put 



What was the effect of his speeches? 



20G FAILURE OF THE CRUSADE. [1149. 

the cross on his mantle: nearly all the German princes and 
people, except the Saxons, followed tlie example. 

In May, 1147, the Crusaders assembled at Ratisbon. There 
were present 70,000 horsemen in armor, without counting the 
foot-soldiers and followers. All the robber-bands and notorious 
criminals of Germany joined the army, for the sake of the full 
and free pardon ojffered by the Pope. Konrad led the march 
down the Danube, through Austria and Thrace, to Constan- 
tinople. Louis YIL, king of France, followed him, with a nearly 
equal force, leaving the German States through which he passed 
in a famished condition. The two armies, united at Con- 
stantinople, advanced through Asia Minor, but were so reduced 
by battles, disease and hardships on the way, that the few 
who reached Palestine were too weak to reconquer the ground 
lost by the king of Jerusalem. Only a band of Flemish and 
English Crusaders, who set out by sea, succeeded in taking 
Lisbon from the Saracens. 

During the year 1149 the German princes returned from 
the East with their few surviving followers. The loss of so 
many robbers and robber-knights was, nevertheless, a great 
gain to the country: the people enjoyed more peace and se- 
curity than they had known for a long time. Duke Welf of 
Bavaria (brother of Henry the Proud) was the first to reach 
Germany: Konrad, fearing that he would make trouble, sent 
after him the young Duke of Suabia, Frederic Red-Beard (Bar- 
barossa) of Hohenstaufen. It was not long, in fact, before the 
war-cries of "Guelph!" and "Ghibelline!" were again heard; 
but Welf, as well as his nephew, Henry the Lion, of Saxony, 
was defeated. During the Crusade, the latter had carried on 
a war against the Wends and other Slavonic tribes in Prussia, 
the chief result of which was the foundation of the city of 
Liib eck. 

King Konrad now determined to pay his delayed visit to 
Rome, and be crowned Emperor. Immediately after his return 



"When and where did the Crusaders meet? How many assembled? What 
classes joined, and why? What was their march? Who followed? What 
was the result of the Crusade? When did the Germans return? How did tlie 
country gain? Who first reached Germany, and who was sent -ifter him? 
What happened? What had Henry the Lion been doing? 



1153.J konrad's death. 207 

from the East, he had received a pressing invitation from the 
Roman Senate to come, to recognize the new order of things in 
the ancient city, and make it the permanent capital of the 
united German and Italian Empire. Arnold of Brescia, who 
for years had been advocating the separation of the Papacy 
from all temporal power , and the reestablishment of the Ro- 
man Church upon the democratic basis of the early Christian 
Church, had compelled the Pope, Eugene III., to accept his 
doctrine. Rome was practically a RepubHc , and Arnold's re- 
form , although fiercely opposed by the Bishops , abbots and 
all priests holding civil power, made more and more headway 
among the people. At a National Diet, held at Wiirzburg in 
1151, it was decided that Konrad should go to Rome, and 
the Pope was officially informed of his intention. But before 
the preparations for the journey were completed, Konrad died, 
in February, 1152, at Bamberg. He was buried there in the 
Cathedral built by Henry II. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE KEIGN OF FREDEEICK I., BARBAROSSA. 
(1152 — 1197.) 

Frederick I., Barbarossa. — His Character.— His First Acts. — Visit to Italy. — 
Coronation and Humiliation. — He is driven back to Germany.— Restores 
Order.— Henry the Lion and Albert the Bear. — Barbarossa's Second Visit 
to Italy. — He conquers Milan. — Roman Laws Revived. — Destruction of 
Milan. — Third and Fourth Visits to Italy. — Troubles with the Popea. — 
Barbarossa and Henry the Lion. — The Defeat at Legnano. — Reconciliation 
with Alexander III.— Henry the Lion Banished. — Tournament at Mayence. — 
Barbarossa's Sixth Visit to Italy. — Crusade for the Recovery of Jerusalem. 
—March through Asia Minor.— Barbarossa's Death. — His Fame among tho 
German People. — His Son , Henry VI., Emperor.— Richard of the Lion- 
Heart Imprisoned.— Last Days of Henry the Lion. — Henry VI.'s Deeds 
and Designs.— His Death. 

Konrad left only an infant son at his death, and the German 
princes, who were learning a little wisdom by this time, deter- 
mined not to renew the unfortunate experiences of Henry IV.'s 



What invitation came to Konrad ? What religious movement took place in 
Italy? Who headed it? What was his success? What was decided in Ger- 
many? When and where did Konrad die? 
10 



208 BARBAEOSSA. [ll52. 

minority. The next heir to the throne was Frederick of 
Suabia, who was now 31 years old, handsome, popular, and 
already renowned as a warrior. He was elected immediately, 
without opposition, and solemnly crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
When he made his "royal ride" through Germany, according 
to custom, the people hailed him with acclamations, hoping for 
peace and a settled authority after so many civil wars. His 
mother was a Welf princess, whence there seemed a pos- 
sibility of terminating the rivalry between Welf and Waib- 
linger, in his election. The Italians always called him "Bar- 
barossa," on account of his red beard, and by this name he is 
best known in history. 

Since the accession of Otto the Great, no German monarch 
had been crowned under such favorable auspices, and none had 
possessed so many of the qualities of a great ruler. He was 
shrewd, clear-sighted, intelligent, and of an iron will: he en- 
joyed the exercise of power, and the aim of his life was to ex- 
tend and secure it. On the other hand he was despotic, merci- 
less in his revenge , and sometimes led by the violence of his 
passions to commit deeds which darkened his name and in- 
terfered with his plans of empire. 

Frederick first assured to the German princes the rights 
which they already possessed as the rulers of States, coupled 
with the declaration that he meant to exact the full and strict 
performance of their duties to him, as king. On his first royal 
journey, he arbitrated between Swen and Canute, rival claim- 
ants to the throne of Denmark, conferred on the Duke of 
Bohemia the title of king , and took measures to settle the 
quarrel between Henry the Lion of Saxony, and Henry of 
Austria, for the possession of Bavaria. In all these matters he 
showed the will, the decision and the imposing personal bear- 
ing of one who felt that he was born to rule; and had he re- 
mained in Germany, he might have consolidated the States 
into one Nation. But the phantom of a Roman Empire beckoned 



Whom did Konrad leave behind him? Who was elected, and what was 
he? How was he received? What was his relationship? What is the mean- 
ing of his historical name? What were his abilities and character? What 
was his first measure? What did he do, on his first journey? What qualities 
did he exliibit? 



1154.J 



HIS CAMP IN ITALY. 



209 



him to Italy. The invitation held out to Konrad was not re- 
newed, for Pope Eugene III. was dead, and his successor, 
Adrian IV. (an Englishman, by the name of Breakspeare), re- 
jected Arnold of 
Brescia's doctrines. 
It was in Frede- 
rick's power to se- 
cure the success of 
either side ; but his 
first aim was the 
Imperial crown,and 
he could only gain 
it without delay by 
assisting the Pope. 
In 1154 Fre- 
derick , accompa- 
nied by Henry the 
Lion and many 
other princes, and 
a large army, cros- 
sed the Brenner 
Pass, in the Tyrol, 
and descended into 
Italy. According to 
old custom , the 
first camp was 
pitched on the Ron- 
calian fields, near 
Piacenza, and the 
royal shield was set 
up as a sign that 
the chief ruler was 
present and ready 
to act as judge in 

all political troubles. Many complaints were brought to him 
against the City of Milan, which had become a haughty and 
despotic Republic, and began to oppress Lodi, Como, and other 




FBEDEBICE I., BABBABOSSA. 



"What change had taken place in Eome? What was in Frederick's power 
and bow did he decide? When and with whom did he march to Italy? 



210 CORONATION AND FIGHT AT ROME. [u55. 

neighboring cities. Frederick saw plainly the trouble which 
this independent movement in Lombardy would give to him 
or his successors; but after losing two months and many troops 
in besieging and destroying Tortona, one of the towns friendly 
to Milan, he was not strong enough to attack the latter city: 
so, having been crowned King of Lombardy at Pavia, he 
marched, in 1165, towards Rome. 

At Viterbo he met Pope Adrian IV., and negotiations com- 
menced in regard to his coronation as Emperor, which, it 
seems, was not to be had for nothing. Adrian's first demand 
was the suppression of the Roman Republic, which had driven 
him from the city. Frederick answered by capturing Arnold 
of Brescia, who was then in Tuscany , and delivering him into 
the Pope's hands. The latter then demanded that Frederick 
should hold his stirrup when he mounted his mule. This humi- 
liation, second only to that which Henry IV. endured at Ca- 
nossa , was accepted by the proud Hohenstaufen , in his am- 
bitious haste to be crowned ; but even then Rome had to be 
first taken from the Repubhcans. By some means an entrance 
was forced into that part of the city on the right bank of the 
Tiber; Frederick was crowned in all haste and immediately 
retreated, but not before he and his escort were furiously at- 
tacked in the streets by the Roman people. Henry the Lion, 
by his bravery and presence of mind, saved the new Emperor 
from being slain. The same night, Arnold of Brescia was 
burned to death by the Pope's order. (Since 1870, his bust 
has been placed upon the Pincian Hill, in Rome, among those 
of the other great men who gave their lives for Italian 
freedom.) 

The news of the Pope's barbarous revenge drove the Ro- 
mans to madness. They rushed forth by thousands, threw 
themselves upon the Emperor's camp, and fought until the 
next night with such desperation that Frederick deemed it 
prudent to retreat to Tivoli. The heats of summer and the 



What complaints were laid before him? "What course did he take? When 
did he march to Rome, and how did the Pope receive him? What was 
Adrian's first demand, and how did Frederick comply? What humiliation did 
ho accept? What happened in Rome? Who saved Frederick? What was 
Arnold of Brescia'a fate? How did the Roman people act? 



1156.] BARBAROSSA's RULE IN GERMANY. 211 

fevers they brought soon compelled him to leave for Germany ; 
the glory of his coming was already exhausted. He fought his 
way through Spoleto ; Verona shut its gates upon him , and one 
robber-castle in the Alps held the whole army at bay, until it 
was taken by Otto of Wittelsbach. The unnatural composi- 
tion of the later ''Roman Empire" was again demonstrated. If, 
during the four centuries which had elapsed since Charle- 
magne's accession to power, the German rule was the curse of 
Italy, Italy (or the fancied necessity of ruling Italy) was no 
less a curse to Germany. The strength of the German people, 
for hundreds of years, was exhausted in endeavoring to keep 
up a high-sounding sovereignty, which they could not truly 
possess, and — in the best interests of the two countries — ougld 
not to have possessed. 

On returning to Germany, Frederick found enough to do. 
He restored the internal peace and security of the country 
with a strong hand, executing the robber-knights, tearing 
down their castles, and even obliging 14 reigning princes, 
among whom was the Archbishop of Mayence, to undergo 
what was considered the shameful punishment of carrying dogs 
in their arms before the Imperial palace. By his second mar- 
riage with Beatrix, Princess of Burgundy, he established 
anew the German authority over that large and rich kingdom; 
while, at a diet held in 1156, he gave Bavaria to Henry the 
Lion, and pacified Henry of Austria by making his territory 
an independent Dukedom. This was the second phase in the 
growth of Austria. 

Henry the Lion, however, was more a Saxon than a Bava- 
rian. Although he first raised Munich from an insignificant 
cluster of peasants' huts to the dignity of a city, his energies 
were chietiy directed towards extending his sway from the 
Elbe eastward, along the Baltic. He conquered Mecklenburg 
and colonized the country with Saxons, made Liibeck an im- 
portant commercial centre, and slowly Germanized the former 
territory of the Wends. Albert the Bear, Count of Branden- 



Wbat forced Frederick to retreat? How did he return to Germany? What 
were the relations of Italy and Germany? What course did Frederick take 
in Germany? How did he punish the robber-knights and princes? How did 
be acquire Burgundy? What further questions did he settle, and when? 
What were Henry tbe Lion's achievements? 



212 



HENRY THE LION AND ALBERT THE BEAR. 



[ll56. 



burg, followed a similar policy, and both were encouraged by 
the Emperor, who was quite "willing to see his own sway thus 




EOBBEE KiaGHTS ATTACKING MERCHANTS. 



extended. A rhyme current among the common people, at the 
time, says: 



Who resemblod him? 



1158.J BARBAROSSA's SUCCESS IN ITALY. 213 

"Heury the Lion and Albert the Bear, 
Thereto Frederick with the red hair, 
Three Lords are they, 
Who could change the world to their wa}''." 

The grand imperial character of Frederick, rather than 
what he had actually accomplished, had already given liim a 
great reputation throughout Europe. Pope Adrian IV. en- 
deavored to imitate Gregory VIL's language to Henry IV., in 
treating with him, but soon found that he was deserted by 
the German Bishops, and thought it prudent to apologize. His 
manner, nevertheless, and the increasing independence of Mi- 
lan, called Frederick across the Alps with an army of 100,000 
men, in 1158. Milan, then surrounded with strong walls, nine 
miles in circuit, was besieged, and, at the end of a month, 
forced to surrender, to rebuild Lodi, and pay a fine of 9,000 
pounds of silver. Afterwards the Emperor pitched his camp 
on the Roncalian fields, with a splendor before unknown. Am- 
bassadors from England, France, Hungary and Constantinople 
were present, and the Imperial power, almost for the first 
time, was thus recognized as the first in the civilized world. 

Frederick used this opportunity to revive the old Roman 
hiws, or at least, to have a code of laws drawn up, which should 
define his rights and those of the reigning princes under him. 
Four doctors of the University of Bologna were selected , who 
discovered so many ancient imperial rights which had fallen 
into disuse that the Emperor's treasury was enriched to the 
amount of 30,000 pounds of silver annually, by their enforce- 
ment. When this system came to be practically applied, Milan 
and other Lombard cities which claimed the right to elect their 
own magistrates, and would have lost it under the new order 
of things, determined to resist. A war ensued : the little city 
of Crema was first besieged , and , after a gallant defence of 
seven months, taken and razed to tlie ground. 

Now came the turn of Milan. In the meantime the Pope, 



What was the popular rhyme? What was Pope Adrian's experience ? 
When was Frederick called to Italy, and why? How did he treat Milan? 
Who attended his camp? What did he now order? What advantage did he 
derive from the Boman laws? How did they affect the Lombard cities? What 
followed? 



214 THE DESTRUCTION OF MILAN. [ll62. 

Adrian lY., had died , after threatening the Emperor with ex- 
communication. The college of cardinals was divided, each 
party electing its own Pope. Of these, Victor IV. was recog- 
nized by Frederick, who claimed the right to decide between 
them, while most of the Italian cities, with France and Eng- 
land, were in favor of Alexander HI. The latter immediately 
excommunicated the Emperor, who, without paying any regard 
to the act, prepared to take his revenge on Milan. In March, 
1162, after a long siege, he forced the city to surrender: the 
magistrates appeared before him in sackcloth, barefoot, with 
ashes upon their heads and ropes around their necks, and beg- 
ged him, with tears, to be merciful; but there was no mercy 
in his heart. He gave the inhabitants eight days to leave the 
city, then levelled it completely to the earth, and sowed salt 
upon the ruins as a token that it should never be rebuilt. The 
rival cities of Pavia , Lodi and Como rejoiced over this bar- 
barity, and all the towns of Northern Italy hastened to submit 
to all the Emperor's claims, even that they should be governed 
by magistrates of his appointment. 

In spite of this apparent submission , he had no sooner re- 
turned to Germany than the cities of Lombardy began to form 
a union against him. They were instigated, and secretly as- 
sisted, by Venice, which was already growing powerful through 
her independence. The Pope, whom Frederick had supported, 
was also dead, and he determined to set up a new one instead 
of recognizing Alexander III. He went to Italy with a small 
escort, in 1163, but was compelled to go back without accom- 
plishing anything but a second destruction of Tortona, which 
had been rebuilt. In Germany new disturbances had broken 
out, but his personal influence was so great that he subdued 
them temporarily : he also prevailed upon the German Bishops 
to recognize Paschalis III., the Pope whom he had appointed. 
He then set about raising a new army, and finally, in 1166, 
made his fourth journey to Italy. 



"What new Papal difficulty arose? What was Frederick's course and how 
did it result V In what manner did the Milanese surrender? How did Fre- 
derick treat the city? What was the e^iect of this cruelty? What followed 
his return to Germany? What was the character of his third visit to Italy? 
When did he make his fourth visit? 



1174.] FIFTH JOURNEY TO ITALY. 215 

This was even more unfortunate than the third journey 
had been. The Lombard cities, feeHng strong through their 
union, had not only rebuilt Milan and Tortona, but had con- 
structed a new fortified town, which they named, after the 
Pope, Alessandria. Frederick did not dare to attack them, 
but marched on to Ancona, which he besieged for seven months, 
finally accepting a ransom instead of surrender. He then took 
that part of Rome west of the Tiber, and installed his Pope in 
the Vatican, Soon afterwards, in the summer of 1167, a ter- 
rible pestilence broke out, which carried ofi* thousands of his 
best* soldiers in a few weeks. His army was so reduced by 
death, that he stole through Lombardy almost as a fugitive, 
remained hidden among the Alps for months, and finally cros- 
sed Mont Cenis with only thirty followers , himself dis.guised 
as a common soldier. 

Having reached Germany in safety, Frederick's personal 
influence at once gave him the power and popularity which he 
had forever lost in Italy. He found Henry the Lion, who, in 
addition to Bavaria, now governed nearly all the territory from 
the Rhine to the Vistula, north of the Hartz Mountains, at 
enmity with Albert the Bear and a number of smaller reign- 
ing princes. As Emperor, he settled the questions in dispute, 
deciding in favor of Henry the Lion, although the increasing 
power of the latter excited his apprehensions. Henry was too 
cautious to make the Emperor his enemy, but in order to avoid 
another march to Italy, he set out upon a pilgrimage to Jeru- 
salem. Frederick, however, did not succeed in raising a fresh 
army to revenge his disgrace until 1174, when he made his 
fifth journey to Italy. He first besieged the new city of Ales- 
sandria, but in vain; then, driven to desperation by his failure, 
he called for help upon Henry the Lion, who had now returned 
from the Holy Land. The two met at Chiavenna, in the Italian 
Alps ; but Henry steadfastly refused to aid the Emperor, 
although the latter conquered his own pride so far as to kneel 
before him. 



What had happened there in the meantime? What city was besieged? 
What happened to Frederick afterwards? How did he get back to Germany? 
What state of things did he find there? How did he settle the quarrel? 
What was Henry the Lion's course? When did Frederick make his fifth 
journey to Italy? What luck had he? To whom did he appeal for help? 



216 RECONCILIATION WITH ALEXANDER III. [ll07 

Bitterly disappointed and humiliated, Frederick appealed 
to all the German States for aid, but did not receive fresh 
troops until the spring of 1176. He then marched upon Mi- 
lan, but was met by the united forces of Lombardy at Leghano, 
near Como. The latter fought with such desperation that the 
Imperial army was completely routed, and its camp equipage 
and stores taken, with many tliousands of prisoners, who were 
treated with the same barbarity which the Emperor himself 
had introduced anew into warfare. He fell from his horse 
during the fight, and had been for some days reported to be 
dead, when he suddenly appeared before the Empress Beatrix, 
at Pa via, having escaped in disguise. 

His military strength was now so broken that he was com- 
pelled to seek a reconciliation with Pope Alexander III. En- 
voys went back and forth between the two, the Lombard cities 
and the king of Sicily; conferences were held at various places, 
but months passed and no agreement was reached. Then the 
Pope, having received Frederick's submission to all his de- 
mands, proposed an armistice, which was solemnly con- 
cluded in Venice, in August, 1177. There the Emperor 
was released from the Papal excommunication; he sank at 
Alexander's feet, but the latter caught and lifted him in his 
arms, and there was once more peace between the two rival 
j)owers. The other Pope, whose claims Frederick had sup- 
ported up to that time, was left to shift for himself. Before 
the armistice ceased, in 1183, a treaty was concluded at Con- 
stance, by which the Italian cities recognized the Emperor as 
chief ruler, but secured for themselves the right of indepen- 
dent government. Thus twenty years had been wasted, the 
best blood of Germany squandered, the worst barbarities of 
war renewed, and Frederick , after enduring shame and humi- 
liation, had not attained one of his haughty personal aims. 
Yet he was as proud in his bearing as ever; his court lost none 
of its splendor, and his influence over the German princes and 
people was undiminished. 



What was his next course? "Where and when did he meet the Italians? 
Describe the battle. What was he forced to seek? When and where was 
the peace concluded? How did the Emperor and Pope meet? What new 
treaty was made, and wlien? What was the result of the long struggle? 



1KS4. 



TOURNAMENT AT MAYENCK. 217 



He readied Germany again in 1178, full of wrath against 
Henry the Lion. It was easy to find a pretext for i^roceeding 
against him, for the Archbishop of Cologne, the Bishop of 
Halberstadt, and many nobles had already made complaints. 
Hunry, in fact, was much like Frederick in his nature, but his 
despotic sternness and pride was more directly exercised upon 
the people. He raised an army and boldly resisted the Im- 
perial power: again Westphalia, Thiiringia and Saxony were 
wasted by civil war, and the struggle was prolonged until 
1181, when Henry was forced to surrender unconditionally. 
He was banished to England for three years: his Duchy of 
Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach; and the greater 
part of Saxony, from the Rhine to the Baltic, was cut up and 
divided among the reigning Bishops and smaller princes. Only 
the province of Brunswick was left to Henry the Lion , of all 
his possessions. This was Frederick's policy for diminishing 
the power of the separate States : the more they were increased 
in number, the greater would be the dependence of each on 
the Emperor. 

The ruin of Henry the Lion fully restored Frederick's 
authority over all Germany. In May, 1184, he gave a grand 
tournament and festival at Mayence, which surpassed in pomp 
everything that had before been seen by the people. The 
flower of knighthood, foreign as well as German, was present: 
princes, bishops and lords, scholars and minstrels, 70,000 
knights, and probably hundreds of thousands of the soldiers 
and common people were gathered together. The Emperor, 
still handsome and towering in manly strength, in spite of his 
sixty-three years, rode in the lists with his five blooming sons, 
the eldest of whom, Henry, was already crowned King of Ger- 
many, as his successor. For many years afterwards, the wan- 
dering minstrels sang the glories of this festival, which they 
compared to those given by the half-fabulous king Arthur. 

Immediately afterwards, Frederick made his sixth journey 
to Italy, without an army, but accompanied by a magnificent 



When did Frederick reach Germany, and in what temper? What war en- 
Biied? How was Henry the Lion treated? What was Frederick's policy? 
When and where did he hold a tournament? Give a description of the scene 



218 baebaeossa's march to Palestine. [ii89. 

retinue. The temporary union of the cities against him was 
at an end, and their former jealousies of each other had broken 
out more fiercely than ever; so that, instead of meeting him 
in a hostile spirit, each endeavored to gain his favor, to the 
damage of the others. It was easy for him to turn this state 
of affairs to his own personal advantage. The Pope, now 
Urban III., endeavored to make him give up Tuscany to the 
Church, and opposed his design of marrying his son Henry to 
Constance, daughter of the king of Sicily, since all Southern 
Italy would thus fall to the Hohenstaufen family. Another 
excommunication was threatened, and would probably have 
been hurled upon the Emperor's head, if the Pope had not 
died before pronouncing it. The marriage of Henry and Con- 
stance took place in 1186. 

The next year, all Europe was shaken by the news that 
Jerusulam had been taken by Sultan Saladin. A call for a 
new Crusade was made from Rome, and the Christian kings 
and people of Europe responded to it. Richard of the Lion- 
Heart, of England; Philip Augustus of France; and first of all 
Frederick Barbarossa, Roman Emperor, put the cross on their 
mantles , and prepared to march to the Holy Land. Frederick 
left his son Henry behind him , as king, but he was still suspi- 
cious of Henry the Lion, and demanded that he should either 
join the Crusade or retire again to England, for three years 
longer, Henry the Lion chose the latter alternative. 

The German Crusaders, numbering about 30,000, met at 
Ratisbon in May, 1189, and marched overland to Constan- 
tinople. Then they took the same route through Asia Minor 
which had been followed by the Second Crusade, defeating the 
Sultan and taking the city of Iconium by the way, and after 
threading the wild passes of the Taurus, reached the borders 
of Syria. While on the march, the Emperor received the false 
message that his son Henry was dead. The tears ran down 
Jiis beard, no longer red, but silver- white ; then, turning to the 



What did Frederick do, immediately afterwards? How was he received, 
and why? What did the Pope endeavor to do? What was the end of it? 
Wliat news came in 1187? Who responded to the call? What was required 
of Henry the Lion ? How many Crusaders met, when and where ? What was 
their line of march ? 



1190.J 



BAKBAROSSA S DEATH. 



219 



army, he cried: ^'My son is dead, but Christ lives! Forwards!" 
On the 10th of June, 1190, either while attempting to ford, 
or bathing in the little river Calycadnus, not far from Tarsus 
he was drowned. The stream, fed by the melted snows of the 




ETJINS OP THE KYFFHATJSEB. 



Taurus, was ice-cold, and one account states that he was not 
drowned, but died in consequence of the sudden chill. A few 
of his followers carried his body to Palestine, where it was 
placed in the Christian church at Tyre. Notwithstanding 
the heroism of the English Richard at Ascalon, the Crusade 



What happened on the way? When and where did Frederick die? What 
othei account has been given? Where was his body taken? 



220 HENBY VI., EMPEROK. [ll91. 

failed, since the German army was broken up after Frederick's 
death, most of the knights returning directly home. 

The most that can be said for Frederick Barbarossa as a 
ruler, is, that no other Emperor before or after his time main- 
tnined so complete an authority over the German princes. 
The influence of his personal presence seems to have been 
very great: the Imperial power became splendid and effective 
in his hands, and, although he did nothing to improve the con- 
dition of the people, beyond establishing order and security, 
they gradually came to consider him as the representative of 
a grand national idea. When he went away to the mysteri- 
ous East, and never returned, the most of them refused to be- 
lieve that he was dead. By degrees the legend took root 
among them that he slumbered in a vault underneath the Kyff- 
hauser — one of his castles, on the summit of -a mountain, 
near the Hartz, — and would come forth at the appointed time, 
to make Germany united and free. Nothing in his character, 
or in the proud and selfish aims of his life, justifies this senti- 
ment which the people attached to his name; but the legend 
became a symbol of their hopes and prayers, through centuries 
of oppression and desolating war, and the name of *'Barbarossa" 
is sacred to every patriotic heart in Germany, even at this day. 
Henry the Lion hastened back to Germany at once, and 
attempted to regain possession of Saxony. King Henry took 
the field against him, and the interminable strife between Welf 
and Waiblinger was renewed for a time. The king was 25 
years old, tall and stately like his father, but even more stern 
and despotic than he. He was impatient to proceed to Italy, 
both to be crowned Emperor and to secure the Norman king- 
dom of Sicily as his wife's inheritance: therefore, making a 
temporary truce with Henry the Lion, he hastened to Rome 
and was there crowned as Henry VI. in 1191. His attempt 
to conquer Naples, which was held by the Norman prince, 
Tancred, completely failed, and a deadly pestilence in his army 



What was the fate of the Crusade? What can be said of Frederick? How 
was he considered by the people? Wliat legend arose concerning him? What 
political character did it take? What new strife began in Germany? What 
was king Henry's appearance and character? What was his first object? 
When was he crowned? What else liappcned to him in Italy? 



1192.] 



KICHAKD OF ENGLAND IMPRISONED. 



221 



compelled him to return to Germany before the close of the 
same year. 

The fight with Henry the Lion was immediately renewed, 
and during the wdiole of 1192 Northern Germany was ravaged 
worse than before. In December of that year, King Kichard 
of the Lion-Heart, returning home overland from Palestine, 
was taken prisoner by Duke Leopold of Austria, whom he 




BLONDEL BEFOBE EICHABD'S PEI80N. 

had offended during the Crusade, and was delivered to the Em- 
peror. As king Richard was the brother-in-law of Henry 
the Lion, he was held partly as a hostage, and partly for the 
purpose of gaining an enormous ransom for his liberation. 
His mother came from England, and the sum of 150,000 silver 
marks which the Emperor demanded was paid by her exer- 
tions : still Richard was kept prisoner at Trifels, a lonely castle 
among the Yosges mountains. The legend relates that his 



What occurred to king Richard of England, and when? Why was he 
hold captive? Who came to his rescue and what was paid? Wliere waa 
Bichard imprisoned? 



222 END OF HENRY VI. (ll97. 

minstrel, Blondel, discovered his place of imprisonment by 
singing the king's favorite song under the windows of all the 
castles near the Rhine, until the song was answered by the 
well-known voice, from within. The German princes, finally, 
felt that they were disgraced by the Emperor's conduct, and 
they compelled him to liberate Richard, in February, 1194. 

The same year a reconciliation was effected with Henry 
the Lion. The latter devoted himself to the improvement of 
the people of his little state of Brunswick : he instituted re- 
forms in their laws, encouraged their education, collected books 
and works of art , and made himself so honored and beloved 
before his death, in August, 1195, that he was mourned as a 
benefactor by those who had once hated him as a tyrant. He 
was 66 years old, three years younger than his rival, Barba- 
rossa, whom he fully equalled in energy and ability. Although 
defeated in his struggle, he laid the basis of a better civil 
order, a higher and firmer civilization, throughout the North 
of Germany. 

Henry VL, enriched by king Richard's ransom, went to 
Italy, ^rchased the assistance of Genoa and Pisa, and easily 
conquered the Sicilian kingdom. He treated the family of 
Tancred (who was now dead) with shocking barbarity, tor- 
tured and executed his enemies with a cruelty worthy of Nero, 
and made himself heartily feared and hated. Then he hastened 
back to Germany, to have the Imperial dignity made hereditary 
in his family. Even here he was on the point of succeeding, 
in spite of the strong opposition of the Saxon princes, when a 
Norman insurrection recalled him to Sicily. He demanded the 
provinces of Macedonia and Epirus from the Greek Emperor, 
encouraged the project of a new Crusade, with the design of 
conquering Constantinople, and evidently dreamed of making 
himself ruler of the whole Christian world , when death cut 
him off, in 1197, in his 32d year. His widow, Constance of 
Sicily, was left with a son, Frederick, then only three years old. 



What story is told about him? • IIow was he released, and when? How 
did Henry the Lion spend his last years? How old was he? What was his 
character? W/iat did Henry VI. next do in Italy? Why did he return to 
Germany? Wliat interrupted his plans? What were his designs? What was 
his end, and wliom did he leave? 



1197,1 TWO EMPERORS ELECT JID. 223 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE REIGN OF FREDERICK II. AND END OF THE HOHEN- 
STAUFEN LINE. (1215 — 1268.) 

Rival Emperors in Germany.— Pope Innocent IIL—Murder of Philip of Hohen- 
staufen.— Otto IV. becomes Emperor. — Frederick of Hohenstaufen goes to 
Germany.— His Character.— Decline of Otto's Power. —Frederick II. crowned 
Emperor. — Troubles with the Pope.— His Crusade to the Holy Land.— 
Frederick's Court at Palermo. — Henry, Count of Schwerin.— Gregory IX. 's 
Persecution of Heretics. — Meeting of Frederick II. and his Son, King 
Henry. — The Emperor returns to Germany. — His Marriage with Isabella 
of England.— He leaves Germany for Italy. — War in Lombardy. — Conflict 
w^ith Pope Gregory IX. — Capture of the Council. — Course of Pope Inno- 
cent III. — Wars in Germany and Italy. — Conspiracies against Frederick II. 
— His Misfortunes and Death. — The Character of his Reign. — His Son, Kon- 
rad IV., succeeds. — William of Holland Rival Emperor. — Death of Kon- 
rad IV.— End of William of Holland.— The Boy, Konradin.— Manfred, King 
of Naples.— Usurpation of Charles of Anjou. — Konradin goes to Italy. — His 
Defeat and Capture. — His Execution. — The Last of the Hohenstaufens. 

A STORY was current among the German people, that, 
shortly before Henry VI.'s death , the spirit of Theodoric the 
Great, in giant form, on a black war-steed, rode along the 
Rhine, presaging trouble to the Empire. This legend no 
doubt originated after the trouble came, and was simply a 
poetical image of what had already happened. The German 
princes were determined to have no child again, as their here- 
ditary Emperor; but only one son of Frederick Barbarossa 
still lived, — Philip of Suabia. The bitter hostility between 
Welf (Guelph) and Waiblinger (Ghibelline) still existed, and 
although Philip was chosen by a Diet held in Thiiringia, the 
opposite party, secretly assisted by the Pope and by Richard 
of the Lion-heart, of England (who had certainly no reason 
to be friendly to the Hohenstaufens!) met at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
and elected Otto, son of Henry the Lion. 

Just at this crisis, Innocent HL became Pope. He was as 



What story was current in Germany? What had the German princes de- 
termined ? What Hohenstaufen was left? What rival Emperors were chosen, 
and by whom? Who became Pope at this time? 



224 MUEDER OF PHILIP. [i20S. 

haughty , inflexible and ambitious as Gregory VII., whom he 
took for his model: under him, and with his sanction, the 
Inquisition, which linked the Christian Church to barbarism, 
was established. St) completely had the relation of the two 
powers been changed by the humiliation of Henry IV. and 
Barbarossa, that the Pope now claimed the right to decide 
between the rival monarchs. Of course he gave his voice for 
Otto, and excommunicated Philip. The effect of this policy, 
however, was to awaken the jealousy of the German Bishops 
as well as the Princes, — even the former found the Papal inter- 
ference a little too arbitrary — and Philip, instead of being in- 
jured, actually derived advantage from it. In the war which 
followed, Otto lost so much ground that in 1207 he was ob- 
liged to fly to England, where he was assisted by king John; 
but he would probably have again failed, when an unexpected 
crime made him successful. Philip was murdered in 1208, by 
Otto of Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria, on account of some per- 
sonal grievance. 

As he left no children, and Frederick, the son of Henry VI., 
was still a boy of fourteen. Otto found no difficulty in persuad- 
ing the German princes to accept him as king. His first act 
was to proceed against Philip's murderer and his accomplice, the 
Bishop of Bamberg. Both fled, but Otto of Wittelsbach was over- 
taken near Ratisbon, and instantly slain. In 1209, king Otto 
collected a magnificent retinue at Augsburg, and set out for 
Italy, in order to be crowned Emperor at Rome. As the 
enemy of the Hohenstaufens, he felt sure of a welcome; but 
Innocent III. whom he met at Viterbo, required a great many 
special concessions to the Papal power before he would consent 
to bestow the crown. Even after the ceremony was over, he 
inhospitably hinted to the new Emperor, Otto IV., that he 
should leave Rome as soon as possible. The gates of the city 
were shut upon the latter, and his army was left without 
supplies. 



Wliat was his character? Wliat did he establish? How had the relation 
of Pope and Emperor become changed? What was the effect of the ex- 
communication? "What was Otto obliged to do, and when? What was Phi- 
lip's fate? How did the German princes act? What did Otto first do? When 
did he go to Italy? How was he received by the Pope? What happened to 
Otto in Rome? 



1209.] 



OTTO IV. IN ITALY. 



225 



The jurists of Bologna soon convinced Otto that some of 
his concessions to the Pope were illegal, and need not be ob- 
served. He therefore took possession of Tuscany, which he 
had agreed to surrender to the Pope, and afterwards marched 
against Southern Italy, where the young Frederick of Hohen- 
staufen was already acknowledged as King of Sicily. The latter 




AKMOK OF THE THIRTEENTH AND FOUETEENTH CENTURIES. 

had been carefully educated under the guardianship of Inno- 
cent III., after the death of Constance in 1198, and threatened 
to become a dangerous rival for the Imperial crown. Otto's 
invasion so exasperated the Pope that he excommunicated him, 
and called upon the German princes to recognize Frederick 
in his stead. As Otto had never been personally popular in 
Germany, the Waiblinger, or Hohenstaufen party responded 



On what advice did he act, and how ? Who was king of Sicily, and what 
wae his position? What course did the Pope take? 



226 TKEDERICK GOES TO GERMANY. [l212 

to Innocent's proclamation. Suabia and Bavaria and the Arch- 
bishop of Mayence pronounced for Frederick, while Saxony, 
Lorraine and the northern Bishops remained true to Otto. 
The latter hastened back to Germany in 1212, regained some 
of his lost ground, and attempted to strengthen his cause by 
marrying Beatrix, the daughter of Philip. But she died four 
days after the marriage, and in the meantime Fiederick, sup- 
plied with money by the Pojoe, had crossed the Alps. 

The young king, who had been educated wholly in Sicily, 
and who all his life was an Italian rather than a German, was 
now eighteen years old. He resembled his grandfather, Frederick 
Barbarossa, in person, was perhaps his equal in strength and 
decision of character, but far surpassed him or any of his 
imperial predecessors in knowledge and refinement. He spoke 
six languages with fluency; he was a poet and minstrel; he 
loved the arts of peace no less than those of war, yet he was 
a statesman and a leader of men. On his way to Germany, 
he found the Lombard cities, except Pavia, so hostile to him 
that he was obliged to cross the Alps by secret and dangerous 
paths, and when he finally reached the city of Constance, with 
only sixty followers. Otto IV. was close at hand, with a large 
army. But Constance opened its gates to the young Hohen- 
staufen: Suabia, the home of his fathers, rose in his support, 
and the Emperor, without even venturing a battle, retreated 
to Saxony. 

For nearly three years, the two rivals watched each other 
without engaging in open hostilities. The stately bearing of 
Frederick, which he inherited from Barbarossa, the charm 
and refinement of his manners, and the generosity he exhibited 
towards all who were friendly to his claims, gradually increased 
the number of his supporters. In 1215, Otto joined King John 
of England and the Count of Flanders in a war against Philip 
Augustus of France, and was so signally defeated that his in- 



What party supported the latter? Who pronounced for Frederick? Who 
for Otto? Wlicn did Otto return, and what did he next do? How did Fre- 
derick act? Wliat was he, by nature? How old, at this time? What were 
his accomplishments and character ? What were the circumstances of his 
journey? How did he succeed? How long did the state of things continue? 
How did Frederick hecome popular? 



1220.] 



CROWNED AS FREDERICK H. 



227 



fluence in Germany speedily came to an end. Lorraine and 
Holland declared for Frederick, who was crowned in Aix-la- 
Cliapelle , with great pomp , the same year. Otto died near 
Brunswick, three years 
afterwards, poor and 
unhonored. 

Pope Innocent III. 
died in 1216, and Fre- 
derick appears to have 
considered that the 
assistance which he 
had received from him 
was personal and not 
Papal ; for he not only 
laid claim to the Tus- 
can possessions, but 
neglected his promise 
to engage in a new 
Crusade for the re- 
covery of Jerusalem, 
and even attempted 
to control the choice 
of Bishops. At the 
same time he took 
measures to secure the 
coronation of his in- 
fant son, Henry, as his 
successor. His journey 
to Rome was made in 
the year 1220. The 
new Pope , Hono- 
rius HI., a man of a 

mild and yielding nature, nevertheless only crowned him on 
condition that he would observe the violated claims of the 
Church, and especially that he would strictly suppress all 
heresy in the Empire. When he had been crowned Emperor 




FREDERICK II. 



What did Otto do, and how was his influence destroyed ? What was Otto'B 
end? When did Pope Innocent die? How was Frederick's course changed? 
When did he return to Rome? On what condition was he crowned? 



228 QUARREL WITH GREGORY IX. [l227. 

as Frederick IL, he fixed himself in Southern Italy and Sicily 
for some years, quite neglecting his German rule, but wisely 
improving the condition of his favorite kingdom. He was 
signally successful in controlling the Saracens, whose language 
he spoke, whom he converted into subjects, and who after- 
wards became his best soldiers. 

The Pope, however, became very impatient at the non- 
fulfilment of Frederick's promises, and the latter was compelled, 
in 1226, to summon a Diet of all the German and Italian 
princes to meet at Verona, in order to make preparations for 
a new Crusade. But the cities of Lombardy, fearing that the 
army to be raised would be used against them , adopted all 
possible measures against the meeting of the Diet, took pos- 
session of the passes of the Adige, and prevented the Emperor's 
son, the young King Henry of Germany, and his followers, 
from entering Italy. Angry and humiliated, Frederick was 
compelled to return to Sicily. The next year, 1227, Honorius 
died, and the Cardinals elected as his successor Gregory IX., 
a man more than 80 years old, but of a remarkably stubborn 
and despotic nature. He immediately threatened the Emperor 
with excommunication in case the crusade for the recovery of 
Jerusalem was not at once undertaken, and the latter was 
compelled to obey. He hastily collected an army and fleet, 
and departed from Naples , but returned at the end of three 
days, alleging a serious illness as the cause of his sudden 
change of plan. 

He was instantly excommunicated by Gregory IX., and he 
replied by a proclamation addressed to all kings and princes, 
— a document breathing defiance and hate against the Pope 
and his claims. Nevertheless, in order to keep his word in 
regard to the Crusade, he went to the East with a large force 
in 1228, and obtained, by a treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, 
the possession of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and Mount 
Carmel, for ten years. His second wife, the Empress lolanthe, 



Where did he then settle? With what people was he successful? What 
was ho compelled to do by the Pope, and when? What course did the Lom- 
bard cities take? When did Honorius die, and who was his successor? What 
threat did Gregory IX. make? How did the Emperor obey? What was Gre- 
gory's course, and Frederick's reply? How did Frederick conduct the Cru- 
8n.de? 



122S.] 



VISIT TO JERUSALEM. 



229 



was the daughter of Guy of Lusignan, the last king of Jeru- 
salem; and therefore, when Frederick visited the holy city, he 
claimed the right, as Guy's heir, of setting the crown of Jeru- 
salem upon his own head. The entire Crusade, which was not 
marked by any deeds of arms, occupied only eight months. 




FKEDEEICK n.'S DEPAKTTEE FOE THE CEUSADES. 

Although he had fulfilled his agreement with Rome, the 
Pope declared that a Crusade undertaken by an excommuni- 
cated Emperor was a sin, and did all he could to prevent 
Frederick's success in Palestine. But when the latter returned 
to Italy, he found that the Roman people, a majority of whom 
were on his side, had driven Gregory IX. from the city. It was 



Who was hia second wife? What did he claim? How long did the Cru- 
eade hist? How was Frederick treated by the Pope? 



230 Frederick's court at Palermo. [1230. 

therefore comparatively easy for him to come to an agreement, 
whereby the Pope released him from the ban, in return for 
being reinstated in Rome. This was only a truce, however, 
not a lasting peace: between two such imperious natures, 
peace was impossible. The agreement, nevertheless, gave 
Frederick some years of quiet, which he employed in regulat- 
ing the affairs of his Southern-Italian kingdom. He abolished, 
as far as possible, the feudal system introduced by the Nor- 
mans, and laid the foundation of a representative form of 
government. His court at Palermo became the resort of 
learned men and poets, where Arabic, Provencal, Italian and 
German poetry was recited, where songs were sung, where 
the fine arts were encouraged, and the rude and warlike pas- 
times of former rulers gave way to the spirit of a purer civili- 
zation. Although, as we have said, his nature was almost 
wholly Italian, no Emperor after Charlemagne so fostered the 
growth of a German literature as Frederick II. 

But this constitutes his only real service to Germany. 
While he was enjoying the peaceful and prosperous develop- 
ment of Naples and Sicily, his great empire in the north was 
practically taking care of itself, for the boy-king, Henry, go- 
verned chiefly by allowing the reigning Bishops, Dukes and 
Princes to do very much as they pleased. There was a season 
of peace with France, Hungary and Poland, and Denmark, 
which was then the only dangerous neighbor, was repelled 
without the Imperial assistance. Frederick II., in his first 
rivalry with Otto, had shamefully purchased Denmark's favor 
by giving up all the territory between the Elbe and the Oder. 
But when Henry, Count of Schwerin, returned from a pilgrim- 
age to the Holy Land, and found the Danish king, Walde- 
mar, in possession of his territory, he organized a revolt in 
order to recover his rights, and succeeded in taking Waldemar 
and his son prisoners. Frederick II. now supported him, and 
the Pope, as a matter of course, supported Denmark. A great 



How was an agreement brought about? "What did Frederick secure by it? 
What did ho accomplish, in Southern Italy? What was the character of his 
court at Palermo? What was going on in Germany, during this time? What 
waB the relation of the neighboring countries ? How had Frederick II. pur- 
chased Denmark's favor? What did Henry of Schwerin undertake? 



1330.J THE INQUISITION IN GEKMANY. ^^31 

battle was fought in Holstein, and the Danes were so signally 
defeated that they were forced to give up all the German 
territory, except the island of Rugen and a little strip of the 
Pomeranian coast, beside paying 45,000 silver marks for the 
ransom of Waldemar and his son. 

About this time, in consequence of the demand of Pope 
Innocent III. that all heresy should be treated as a crime and 
suppressed by force, a new element of conflict with Piome was 
introduced into Germany. Among other acts of violence, the 
Stedinger, a tribe of free farmers of Saxon blood, who inhabited 
the low country near the mouth of the Weser, were literally 
exterminated by order of the Archbishop of Bremen, to whom 
they had refused the payment of tithes. In 4230, Gregory IX. 
wrote to king Henry, urging him to crush out heresy in Ger- 
many: ''Where is the zeal of Moses, whodestroyed 23,000 ido- 
laters in one day? Where is the zeal of Elijah, who slew 450 
prophets with the sword, by the brook Kishon? Against this 
evil the strongest means must be used : there is need of steel 
and fire." Conrad of Marburg , a monk, who inflicted years 
of physical and spiritual suffering upon Elizabeth, Countess o^ 
Thuringia, in order to make a saint of her, was appointed In- 
quisitor for Germany by Gregory, and for three years he tor- 
tured and burned at will. His horrible cruelty at last pro- 
voked revenge: he was assassinated on the highway near 
Marburg, and his death marks the end of the Inquisition in 
Germany. 

, In 1232, Frederick H., in order that he might seem to 
fulfil his neglected duties as German Emperor, summoned a 
general Diet to meet at Ravenna, but it was prevented by the 
Lombard cities, as the Diet of Verona had been prevented six 
years before. Befriended by Venice, however, Frederick 
marched to Aquileia, and there met his son, king Henry, after 
a separation of twelve years. Their respective ages were 37 
and 21: there was little personal sympathy or afl*ection be- 



State the particulars of his success. What new form of trouble with Eome 
arose? What people were exterminated, and why? What did Gregory urge 
upon king Henry? Who introduced the Inquisition into Germany? What 
was the consequence? Wlien and where did Frederick summon a Diet? How 
was It prevented? Where did he meet his son? 



11 



232 feederick's marriage at worms. [1235. 

tween them, and they only came together to quarrel. Frederick 
refused to sanction most of Henry's measures; he demanded, 
among otlier things, that the Latter should rebuild the strong- 
holds of the robber -knights of Hohenlohe, which had been 
razed to the ground. This seemed to Henry an outrage as 
well as a humiliation, and he returned home with rebellion in 
his heart. After proclaiming himself independent king, he 
entered into an alliance with the cities of Lombardy and even 
sought the aid of the Pope. 

Early in 1 235, after an absence of fifteen years, Frederick II. 
returned to Germany. The revolt, which had seemed so threat- 
ening, fell to pieces at his approach. He was again master of 
the Empire, without striking a blow: Henry had no course 
but to surrender without conditions. He was deposed, im- 
prisoned, and finally sent with his family to Southern Italy, 
where he died seven years afterwards. The same summer the 
Emperor, whose wife, lolanthe, had died some years before, 
was married at ^Yorms to Isabella, sister of 'king Henry III.^ 
of England. The ceremony was attended with festivals of 
^Oriental splendor; the attendants of the new Empress were 
Saracens, and she was obliged to live after the manner of 
Eastern women. Immense numbers of the nobles and people 
flocked to Worms , and soon afterwards to Mayence , where a 
Diet was held. Here, for the first time, the decrees of the 
Diet were publicly read in the German language. Frederick 
also, as the head of the Waiblinger party, efi"ected a reconci- 
liation with Otto of Brunswick, the head of the Welfs, whereby 
the rivalry of a hundred years came to an end in Germany; 
but in Italy the struggle between the Ghibellines and the 
Guelfs was continued long after the Hohenslaufen line became 

extinct. 

In the autumn of 1236, Frederick conquered and deposed 
Frederick the Quarrelsome, Duke of Austria, and made Vienna 
a free Imperial city. A Diet was held there, at which his se- 



What was the character of their interview ? What did the Emperor re- 
quire of his son? What did the latter do? When, and after what absence, 
did Frederick return to Germany? How did he subdue the rebellion? What 
was Henry's fate? What else took place that summer? How was the marriage 
celebrated? What else did Frederick effect? What was continued in Italy? 
What was Frederick's course in Austria? 



1237.J WAES IN ITALY. 233 

cond son, Konrad, then nine years old, was accepted as king 
of Germany. This choice was confirmed by another Diet, held 
the following year at Speyer. The Emperor now left Ger- 
many, never to return. This brief visit , of a little more than 
a year , was the only interruption in his thirty years of ab- 
sence; but it revived his great personal influence over princes 
and people, it was marked by the full recognition of his au- 
thority, and it contributed, in combination with his struggle 
against the power of Rome which followed , to impress upon 
his reign a more splendid and successful character than his 
acts deserve. Although the remainder of his history belongs 
to Italy, it was not without importance for the later fortunes 
of Germany, and must therefore be briefly stated. 

On returning to Italy, Frederick found himself involved in 
new difficulties with the independent cities. He was supported 
by his scfn-in-law, Ezzelin, and a large army from Naples and 
Sicily, composed chiefly of Saracens. With this force he won 
such a victory at Cortenuovo, that even Milan off*ered to yield, 
under hard conditions. Then Frederick II. made the same 
mistake as his grandfather, Barbarossa, in similar circum- 
stances. He demanded a complete and unconditional sur- 
render, which so aroused the fear and excited the hate of the 
Lombards, that they united in a new and desperate resistance, 
which he was unable to crush. Gregory IX., who claimed for 
tiie Church the Island of Sardinia, which Frederick had given 
as a kingdom to his son Enzio, hurled a new excommunication 
against the Emperor , and the fiercest of all the quarrels be- 
tween the two powers now began to rage. 

The Pope, in a proclamation, asserted of Frederick: "This 
pestilential king declares that the world has been deceived by 
three impostors, Moses, Mohammed and Christ, the two for- 
mer of whom died honorably, but the last shamefully, upon 
the cross." He further styled the Emperor, "that beast of 
Revelations which came out of the sea, which now destroys 
everything with its claws and iron teeth, and, assisted by the 



What was done at the Diet of Vienna? "What was effected by this visit to 
Germany? What awaited the Emperor in Italy? Who supported him? What 
success had he? How did he abuse it, aud what foUowed ? What did Pope 
Gregory claim, and do ? 



23 i CAPTUJiE OF THE POPE's COUNCIL. [l241. 

heretics, arises against Christ, in order to drive his name out 
of the world." Frederick, in an answer which was sent to all 
the kings and princes of Christendom, wrote: ''The Apostolic 
and Athanasian Creeds are mine; Moses I consider a friend of 
God, and Mohammed an arch-impostor." He described tlie 
Pope as "that horse in Revelations , from which, as it is writ- 
ten, issued another horse, and he that sat upon him took 
away the peace of the world, so that the living destroyed each 
other," and named him further: "the second Balaam, the great 
dragon, yea, even the Antichrist.^' 

Gregory IX. endeavored, but in vain, to set up a rival Em- 
peror: the Princes, and even the Ai'chbishops, were opposed to 
laim. Frederick, who was not idle meanwhile, entered the 
States of the Church, took several cities, and advanced towards 
Rome. Tlien the Pope offered to call together a Council in 
Rome, to settle all matters in dispute. But those who were 
summoned to attend were Frederick's enemies, whereupon he 
issued a proclamation declaring the Council void, and warning 
the bishops and priests against coming to it. The most of 
them, however, met at Nice, in 1241, and embarked for Rome 
on a Genoese fleet of sixty vessels; but Frederick's son, Enzio, 
intercepted them with a Pisan and Sicilian fleet, captured 100 
cardinals, bishops and abbots, 100 civil deputies and 4000 
men , and carried them to Naples. The Council , therefore, 
could not be held , and Pope Gregory died soon afterwards, 
almost a hundred years old. 

After quarreling for nearly two years, the Cardinals finally 
elected a new Pope, Innocent IV. He had been a friend of 
the Emperor, but the latter exclaimed , on hearing of his elec- 
tion: "I fear that I have lost a friend among the Cardinals, 
and found an enemy in the chair of St. Peter: no Pope can be 
a Ghibelline!" His words were true. After fruitless negotia- 
tions. Innocent IV. fled to Lyons, and there called together a 
Council of the Church, which declared that Frederick had for- 



How did he assail the Emperor? How did the latter answer? What did 
the Pope try to do? What advantages did Frederick gain? What did the 
Pope offer to do? Why did Frederick oppose it? What became of the mem- 
bers of the Council? Wliat next happened? Who was elected, and what did 
Frederick say? 



1249.] ATTEMPT TO POISON FREDEPvICK. 235 

felted his crowns and dignities, that he was cast out by God, 
and should be thenceforth accursed. Frederick answered this 
decharation with a bold statement of the corruptions of the 
clergy, and the dangers arising from the temporal power of 
the Popes , which , he asserted , should be suppressed for the 
sake of Christianity, the early purity of which had been lost. 
King Louis IX. of France eru:leavored to bring about a sus- 
pension of the struggle, which was now beginning to disturb 
all Europe ; but the Pope angrily refused. 

In 1246, the latter persuaded Henry Raspe, Landgrave of 
Thiiringia, to claim the crown of Germany, and supported him 
with all the influence and wealth of the Church. He was de- 
feated and wounded in the first battle, and soon afterwards 
died, leaving Frederick's son, Konrad, still king of Germany. 
In Italy, the civil war raged with the greatest bitterness, and 
with horrible barbarities on both sides. Frederick exhibited 
such extraordinary courage and determination that his enemies, 
encouraged by the Church, finally resorted to the basest means 
of overcoming him. A plot formed for his assassination was 
discovered in time, and the conspirators executed: then an at- 
tempt was made to poison him, in which his chancellor and 
intimate friend, Peter de Vinea — his companion for thirty 
years, — seems to have been implicated. At least he recom- 
mended a certain physician, who brought to the Emperor a 
poisoned medicine. Something in the man's manner excited 
Frederick's mistrust, and he ordered him to swallow a part of 
the medicine. When the latter refused, it was given to a con- 
demned criminal, who immediately died. The physician was 
executed and Peter de Vinea sent to prison, where he com- 
mitted suicide by dashing his head against the walls of his cell. 

In the same year, 1249, Frederick's favorite son, Enzio, 
king of Sardinia, who even surpassed his father in personal 
beauty, in accomphshments, in poetic talent and heroic courage, 
was taken prisoner by the Bolognese. All the father's offers 



What was Pope Innocent's course? How did Frederick answer? Who 
tried to mediate? What was the Pope's next measure, and when? How did 
it turn out? What was going on in Italy? What did Frederick's enemies 
attempt? Who was supposed to be implicated? Helate the circumstances 
Wiio was Enzio, and how distinguished ? 



236 FBEDEEICK II.'s DEATH. [l250. 

of ransom were rejected, all his menaces defied: Enzio was con- 
demned to perpetual imprisonment, and languished 22 years 
in a dungeon, until libcTated by death. Frederick was almost 
broken-hearted, but his hii^h coura^re never flarrnred. He was 
encompassed by enemies, he scarcely knew whom to trust, yet 
he did not yield the least of his claims. And fortune, at last, 
seemed inclined to turn to his side: a new rival king, William 
of Holland, whom the Pope had set up against him in Ger- 
many, failed to maintain himself: the city of Piacenza, in Lom- 
bardy, espoused his cause: the Romans, tired of Innocent IV.'s 
absence, began to talk of electing another Pope in his stead.; 
and even Innocent himself was growing unpopular in France. 
Then, while he still defiantly faced the world, still had faith 
in his final triumph, the body refused to support his fiery 
spirit. He died in the arms of his youngest son, Manfred, on 
the 13th of December, 1250, fifty-six years old. He was buried 
at Palermo; and when his tomb there was opened, in the 
year 1783, his corpse was found to have scarcely undergone 
any decay. 

Frederick II. was unquestionably one of the greatest men 
who ever bore the title of German (or Roman) Emperor; yet 
all the benefits his reign conferred upon Germany were wholly 
of an indirect character, and were more than balanced by the 
positive injury occasioned by his neglect. There were strong 
contradictions in his nature, which make it difficult to judge 
him fairly as a ruler. As a man of great learning and intel- 
ligence, his ideas were liberal; as a monarch, he was violent 
and despotic. He wore out his life , trying to crush the re- 
publican cities of Italy; he was jealous of the growth of the 
free cities of Germany, yet granted them a representation in 
the Diet; and in Sicily, where his sway was undisputed, he 
was wise, just and tolerant. Representing in liimself the high- 
est taste and refinement of his age, he was nevertheless as 
rash, passionate and relentless as the monarchs of earlier and 
ruder times. In his struggle with the Popes, he was far in ad- 



What was liis fate? What was Frotlerick's situation and bearing? How 
did his fortunes cliangc? When, and at wluit age, did lie die? Where was 
he buried? What m'lst be said of him, as Emperor? What were the contra- 
dictious in his nature? How did he act towards the cities? 



1254.J KONRAD iv/s EEIGN. 237 

vance of his age, and herein, although unsuccessful, he was not 
subdued: in reality, he was one of the most powerful forerun- 
ners of the Reformation. There are few figures in European 
liistory so bright, so brave, so full of heroic and romantic 
interest. 

Frederick's son and successor, Konrad lY., inherited the 
liate and enmity of Pope Innocent IV. The latter threatened 
with excommunication all who should support Konrad, and 
forbade the priests to administer the sacraments of the Church 
to his followers. The Papal proclamations were so fierce that 
they incited the Bishop of Ratisbon to plot the king's murder, 
in which he came very near being succesful. William of Hol- 
land, whom the jDcople called *'the Priests' King," was not sup- 
ported by any of the leading German princes, but the gold of 
Rome purchased him enough of troops to meet Konrad in the 
field, and he was temporarily successful. The hostility of the 
Pope seems scarcely to have affected Konrad's position in Ger- 
many; but both rulers and people were growing indifferent to 
the Imperial power, the seat of which had been so long trans- 
ferred to Italy. They therefore took little part in the struggle 
between William and Konrad, and the latter's defeat was by 
no means a gain to the former. 

The two rivals, in fact, were near their end. Konrad IV. 
went to Italy and took possession of the kingdom of his father, 
which his step-brother, Manfred, governed in his name. He 
made an earnest attempt to be reconciled with the Pope, but 
Innocent IV. was implacable. He then collected an army of 
20,000 men, and was about to lead it to Germany against 
William of Holland, when he suddenly died, in 1254, in the 
27th year of his age. It was generally believed that he had 
been poisoned. William of Holland, since there was no one to 
dispute his claim, obtained a partial recognition of his sover- 
eignty in Germany; but, having undertaken to subdue the free 
farmers in Friesland, he was defeated. While attempting to 



How was he in advance of his age? Who was his successor? "What did 
he inherit? What was the Pope's course? To what did it lead? How was 
Wiliiam of Holland supported? How did the German people behave? What 
did Konrad IV. do in Italy? When, and under what circumstances, did he 
die? 



238 MANFRED KING OF NAPLES. [lJ>68. 

escape , his heavy war-horse broke through the ice , and tlie 
farmers surrounded and slew him. This was in 1256, two 
years after Konrad's death. Innocent I\^ had expended no 
less than 400,000 silver marks — a very large sum in those 
days — in supporting him and Henry Raspe against the Hohen- 
staufens. 

Konrad IV. left behind him, in Suabia, a son Konrad, who 
was only two years old at his f^xther's death. In order to dis- 
tinguish him from the latter, the Italians gave him the name 
of Conradino (Little Konrad) , and as Konradin he is known 
in German history. He was educated under the charge of his 
mother, Queen Elizabeth, and his uncle Ludwig II., Duke of 
Bavaria. When he was ten years old, the Archbishop of 
Mayence called a Diet, at which it was agreed that he should 
be crowned King of Germany, but the ceremony was prevented 
by the furious opposition of the Pope. Koni'adin made such 
progress in his studies and exhibited so much fondness for 
literature and the arts, that the followers of the Ilohenstaufens 
saw in him another Frederick H. One of his poems is still in 
existence, and testifies to the grace and refinement of his 
youthful mind. 

After Konrad IV.'s death, the Pope claimed the kingdom 
of Naples and Sicily, as being forfeited to the Church, but 
found it prudent to allow Manfred to govern in his name. The 
latter submitted, at first, but only until his authority was 
firmly established: then he declared war, defeated the Papal 
troops, drove them back to Rome, and was crowned king in 
1258. The news of his success so agitated the Pope that he 
died shortly afterwards. His successor. Urban IV., a French- 
man, who imitated his policy, found Manfred too strongly 
established to be defeated without foreign aid. He therefore 
offered the crown of Southern Italy to Charles of Anjou, the 
brother of king Louis IX. of France. Physically and intellec- 
tually, there could be no greater contrast than between him 



"What was the fate of William of Ilollaiid? What sum had the Pope ex- 
pended? Wliom did Konrad IV. leave, and what was he called? By whom was he 
educated? Wliat was proposed, and how prevented? What were Konradin's 
accomplishments? What happened in Naples and Sicily? What did Manfred 
do? What course did Pope Urban IV. take? 




EXECUTION OF KONRADIX. 



240 KONEADIN IN ITALY. [l268. 

and Manfred. Charles of Anjou was awkward and ugly, sa- 
vage, ignorant and bigoted: Manfred was a model of manly 
beauty, a scholar and poet, a patron of learning, a builder of 
roads, bridges and harbors, a just and noble ruler. 

Charles of Anjou, after being crowned king of Naples and 
Sicily by the Pope, and having secured secret advantages by 
bribery and intrigue, marched against Manfred in 1266. They 
met at Benevento, where, after a long and bloody battle, 
Manfred was slain, and the kingdom submitted to the usurper. 
By the Pope's order, Manfred's body was taken from the 
chapel where it had been buried , and thrown into a trench : 
his widow and children were imprisoned for life by Charles of 
Anjou. 

The boy Konradin determined to avenge his uncle's death, 
and recover his own Italian inheritance. His mother sought 
to dissuade him from the attempt, but Ludwig of Bavaria 
offered to support him, and his dearest friend, Frederick of 
Baden, a youth of 19, insisted on sharing his fortunes. To- 
wards the end of 1267, he crossed the Alps and reached 
Verona with a force of 10,000 men. Here he was obliged to 
wait three months, for further support, and during this time 
more than two-thirds of his German soldiers returned home. 
But a reaction against the Guelfs (the Papal party), had set 
in ; several Lombard cities and the Bepublic of Pisa declared 
in Konradin's favor, and finally the Romans, at his approach, 
expelled Pope Urban IV. A revolt against Charles of Anjou 
broke out in Naples and Sicily, and when Konradin entered 
Rome, in July, 1268, his success seemed almost assured. After 
a most enthusiastic reception by the Roman people , he con- 
tinued his march southward, with a considerable force. 

On the 22d of August he met Charles of Anjou in battle, 
and was at first victorious. But his troops, having halted to 
plunder the enemy's camp, were suddenly attacked, and at last 
completely routed. Konradin and his friend, PYederick of 



What was Charles of Anjou? What was Manfred? When, and under what 
circumstances, did Charles move against Manfred? What was the latter's 
fato? What was Konradin's decision? Who supported liim? When did ho 
m.vich9 What happened in I aly, after his arrival? When did he enter 
Rome? How was he received? When did he meet Charles of Anjou? What 
WU8 the fale of the battle? 



1J68.J EXECUTION OF KONRADIN. 241 

Baden, fled to Rome, and thence to the little port of Astura, 
on the coast, in order to embark for Sicily; but here they 
were arrested by Frangipani, the Governor of the place, who 
had been specially favored by the Emperor Frederick II. and 
now sold his grandson to Charles of Anjou for a large sum of 
money. Konradin having been carried to Naples, a court of 
distinguished jurists was called, to try him for high treason. 
With one exception, they pronounced him guiltless of any 
crime; yet Charles, nevertheless, ordered him to be executed. 

On the 29th of October, 1268, the last Hohenstaufen, a 
youth of 16, and his friend Frederick, were led to the scaf- 
fold. Charles watched the scene from a window of his palace; 
the people, gloomy and mutinous, were overawed by his 
guards. Konradin advanced to the edge of the platform and 
threw his glove among the crowd, asking that it might be car- 
ried to some one who would avenge his death. A knight who 
was present took it afterwards to Peter of Arragon , who had 
married king ]Manfi#d's eldest daughter. Then, with the ex- 
clamation: "Oh, mother, what sorrow I have prepared for 
thee!" Konradin knelt and received the fatal blow. After him 
Frederick of Baden and thirteen others were executed. 

The tyranny and inhuman cruelty of Charles of Anjou 
jjrovoked a conspiracy which, in the year 1282, gave rise to 
the massacre called "the Sicilian Vespers." In one night all the 
French officials and soldiers in Sicily were slaughtered, and 
Peter of Arragon, the heir of the Hohenstaufens, became king 
of the island. But in Germany the proud race existed no 
more, except in history, legend and song. 



"Where, and by whom, was Konradin captured? "What was the decree of 
the court? Of Charles? "When was the execution? Describe the scene. What 
was occasioned by the tyranny of Charles? 



242 CHANGES IN GEEMANY. [i256. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

GERMANY AT THE TIME OF THE INTERREGNUM. 

(1256—1273.) 

Change in the Character of the German Empire. — Ricliard of Cornwall and 
Alphouso of Castile purchase their Election. — The Inteireguum. — Effect of 
the Crusades. — Heresy and Persecution. — The Orders of Knighthood. — 
Conquests of the German Order. — Rise of the Cities.— Robber-Knights. — 
The Hanseatic League.— Population and Power of the Cities. — Gothic 
Architecture. — The Universities. — Seven Classes of the Peo}.'le. — The Small 
States.— Service of the Hohenstaufens to Germany. — Epic Poetry of the 
jMiddle Ages.— Historical Writers. 

The end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty marks an importiint 
phase in the history of Germany. From this time the charac- 
ter of the Empire is radically changed. Although still called 
*'Roman'' in official documents, the term is henceforth an 
empty form , and even the word "Empire" loses much of its 
former significance. The Italian Republics were now practi- 
cally independent, and the various dukedoms, bishoprics, prin- 
cipalities and countships, into which Germany was divided, 
were fast rendering it difficult to effect any unity of feeling or 
action among the people. The Empire which Charlemagne de- 
signed, which Otto the Great nearly established, and which 
Barbarossa might have founded, but for the fatal ambition of 
governing Italy, had become impossible. Germany was, in re- 
ality, a loose confederation of differently organized and go- 
verned States, which continued to make use of the form of an 
Empire as a convenience rather than a political necessity. 

The events which followed the death of Konrad IV. 
illustrate the corrupt condition of both Church and State at 
that time. The money which Pope Innocent lY. so freely ex- 
pended in favor of the anti-kings , Henry Easpe and William 
of Holland, had already taught the Electors the advantage of 
selling their votes: so, when William was slain by the farmers 
of Friesland, and no German prince seemed to care much for 



Wliat does the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty mark? "What was the 
effect of the division of Germany? What prevented a strong Empire from 
being established? What was Germany, in reality? How were the Electors 
made corrupt? 



1256.] SALE OF THE IMPEKIAL CEOWN. 243 

the title of Emperor (since each already had independent power 
over his own territory), the high dignity, so recently possessed 
by Frederick II., was put up at auction. Two bidders made 
their appearance, Richard of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. 
of England, and king Alphonso of Castile, surnamed "the 
Wise." The Archbishop of Cologne was the business agent of 
the former: he received 12,000 silver marks for himself, and 
eight or nine thousand apiece for the Dukes of Bavaria, the 
Archbishop of Mayence, and several other electors. The Arch- 
bishop of Treves, in the name of king Alphonso, offered the 
king of Bohemia, the Dukes of Saxony and the Margrave of 
Brandenburg 20,000 marks each. Of course both purchasers 
were elected, and they were proclaimed kings of Germany al- 
most at the same time. Alphonso never even visited his 
realm: Richard of Cornwall came to Aix-la-Chapelle, was form- 
ally crowned, and returned now and then, whenever the pro- 
duce of his tin-mines in Cornwall enabled him to pay for an 
enthusiastic reception by the people. He never attempted, 
however, to govern German}^, for he probably had intelligence 
enough to see that any such attempt would be disregarded. 

This period was afterwards called by the people: "the 
Evil Time when there was no Emperor" — and , in spite of the 
two kings, who had fairly paid for their titles , it is known in 
German history as "the Interregnum." It was a period of 
change and confusion, when each prince endeavored to become 
an absolute ruler, and the knights, in imitating them , became 
robbers; when tlie free cities, encouraged by the example of 
Italy, united in self-defence, and the masses of the people, al- 
though ground to the dust, began to dream again of the rights 
which their ancestors had possessed a thousand years before. 

First of all, the great change wrought in Europe by the 
Crusades was beginning to be felt by all classes of society. 
The attempt to retain possession of Palestine, which lasted 
nearly 200 years,— from the march of the First Crusade inl098 



What happened after WiUiam of Holland's death? Who were the two 
applicants? Who was Richard of Cornwall's agent? What Bums did lie ex- 
pend? What offers were made in Alplionso's name? Wliat was the result? 
What were the relations of the two Emperors to Germany? What was this 
period called hy the people? What is it called in history? What was its 
character? What first produced a change? 



244 GROWTH OF INDEPENDENT SECTS. [l25e. 

to the fall of Acre in 1291, — cost Europe, it is estimated, six mil- 
lions of lives, and an immense amount of treasure. The Roman 
Church favored the undertaking in every possible way, since each 
Crusade instantly and greatly strengthened its power; yet the 
result was the reverse of what the Church hoped for, in the 
end. The bravery, intelligence and refined manners of the Sa- 
racens made a great impression on the Christian knights , and 
they soon began to imitate those whom they had at first des- 
pised. New branches of learning, especially astronomy, mathe- 
matics and medicine, were brought to Europe from the East; 
more luxurious habits of life , giving rise to finer arts of in- 
dustry, followed; and commerce, compelled to supply the Cru- 
saders and Christian colonists at such a distance, was rapidly 
developed to an extent unknown since the fall of the Roman 
Empire. 

As men gained new ideas from these changes, they became 
more independent in thought and speech. The priests and 
monks ceased to monopolize all knowledge, and their despotism 
over the human mind met with resistance. Then, first, the 
charge »f "heresy" began to be heard; and although during 
the thirteenth and a part of the fourteenth centuries the Pope 
of Rome was undoubtedly the highest power in Europe, the 
influences were already at work which afterwards separated 
the strongest races of the world from the Roman Church. On 
the one hand, new orders of monks were created, and mon- 
asteries increased everywhere : on the other hand, independent 
Christian sects began to spring up, like the Albigenses in 
France and the Waldenses in Savoy, and could not be wholly 
suppressed, even with fire and sword. 

The orders of knighthood which possessed a religious cha- 
racter, were also established during the Crusades. First the 
knights of St. John, whose badge was a black mantle with a 
white cross, formed a society to guard pilgrims to the Holy 
Land, and take care of the sick. Then followed the Knights 



How long did the Crusades last? What did they cost Europe? What 
power favored them? How were tlie Christians influenced hj the Saracens? 
What f(;llowcd the intercourse with the East? What other changes took 
place in the people? What charge was heard? What influences were at work? 
What classes arose, on both sides? What other orders were established? 
Which was first, and how distinguished? 



1256.] 



OEDEES OF KNIGHTHOOD, 



245 



Templar, distinguished by a red cross on a white mantle. Both 
these orders originated among the Italian chivalry, and they 




AN EMPKROR CONTEBKINO KmGHTHOOD. 



included few German members. During the Third Crusade, 
however (which was headed by Barbarossa) , the German Order 



What was the second? Of what were they composed? 



246 CONQUESTS OF THE GEEMAN OEDER. [l25G. 

of Kniglits was formed, chiefly by the aid of the merchants 
of Bremen and Liibeck. They adopted the black cross on a 
white mantle as their badge , took the monkish vows of celi- 
bacy, poverty and obedience, like the Templars and the Knights 
of St. John, and devoted their lives to war with the heathen. 
The second Grand-Master of this order, Hermann of Salza, ac- 
companied Frederick II. to Jerusalem , and his character was 
so highly estimated by the latter that he made him a prince 
of tlie German Empire. 

Inasmuch as the German Order really owed its existence 
to the support of the merchants of the Northern coast, Her- 
mann of Salza sought for a field of labor wherein the knights 
might fulfil their vows, and at the same time achieve some ad- 
vantage for their benefactors. As early as 1199, the Bremen 
merchants had founded Riga, taken p)Ossession of the eastern 
shore of the Baltic and established German colonies there. 
The native Finnish or Lithuanian inhabitants were either ex- 
terminated or forcibly converted to Christianity, and an order, 
called "the Brothers of the Sword," was established for the 
defence of the colonies. This new German territory was se- 
parated from the rest of the Empire by the country between 
the mouths of the Vistula and the Memel, claimed by Poland, 
and inhabited by the Borussii, or Pnissians, a tribe which 
seems to have been of mixed Slavic and Lithuanian blood. 
Hermann of Salza obtained from Poland the permission to 
possess this country for the German Order, and he gradually 
conquered or converted the native Prussians. In the mean- 
time the Brothers of the Sword were so hard pressed by a re- 
volt of the Livonians that they united themselves with the 
German Order, and thenceforth formed a branch of it. The 
result of this union was that the whole coast of the Baltic, 
from Holstein to the Gulf of Finland, was secured to Ger- 
many, and became civilized and Christian, 



When was tlie German Order formed and by whose aid? "What was their 
badge? What vows did they take? Wlio was the second Grand -Master of 
the order? "What did ho undertake? When was Riga founded? How were 
tlie inhabitants treated? What new order was formed? What did Hermann 
of Salza accomplish? What union followed his success? What was gained 
to Germany? 



1256.J 



CONDITION OF GEKMANY. 



247 



During the 35 years of Frederick II. 's reign and the 17 
succeeding years of the Interregnum, Germany was in a con- 
dition which allowed the strong to make themselves stronger, 



^"^^fe^^^^^i.^fe 




KOBBEE KNIGHTS LYING IN WAIT. 



yet left the weaker classes without any protection. The reign- 
ing Dukes and Archbishops were, of course, satisfied with this 
state of affairs ; the independent counts and barons with large 



In what condition was Germany during Frederick II. 's reign? 



248 * ROBBEK-KXIGHTS. — CITIES. [l256. 

possessions maintained their power by temporary alliances; the 
inferior nobles, left to themselves, became robbers of land, and 
highwaymen. With the introduction of new arts and the 
wider extension of commerce, the cities of Germany had risen 
in wealth and power, and were beginning to develop an intel- 
ligent middle-class, standing between the farmers, who had 
sunk almost into the condition of serfs, and the lesser nobles, 
most of whom were equally poor and proud. Upwards of 
sixty cities were free municipalities, belonging to the Empire 
on the same terms as the dukedoms ; that is, they contributed 
a certain proportion of men and money, and were bound to 
obey the decrees of the Imperial Diets. 

As soon, therefore, as there was no superior authority to 
maintain order and security in the land, a large number of the 
knights became freebooters, plundering and laying waste when- 
ever opportunity offered , attacking the caravans of travelling 
merchants, and accumulating the ill-gotten wealth in their 
strong castles. Many an aristocratic family of the present 
day owes its inheritance to that age of robber}^ and murder. 
The people had few secured rights and no actual freedom in 
Germany, with the exception of Friesland, some parts of Saxony 
and the Alpine districts. 

In this condition of things, the free cities soon found it 
advisable to assist each other. Bremen, Hamburg and Liibeck 
first formed a union, chiefly for commercial purposes, in 1241, 
and this was the foundation of the famous Hanseatic League. 
Immediately after the death of Konrad lY. Mayence, Speyer, 
Worms, Strasburg and Basel formed the "Union of Rhenish 
Cities'^ for the preservation of peace and the mutual protection 
of their citizens. Many other cities, and even a number of reign- 
ing princes and bishops soon became members of this league, 
which for a time exercised considerable power. The principal 
German cities were then even more important than now; few 
of them have gained in population or in relative wealth, in 
the course of 600 years. Cologne had then 1 20,000 inhabitants, 



How did it affect the princes and nobles? What was developed at this 
time, and how? How many free cities were there? What course was pursued 
by many of the kniglits ? Where were the only free people? What uni^n 
was formed, and wlien? What other union followed, and for what purpose^ 
What was tlje condition of the cities then? 




A QER3IAN CITY IN THE 14tH CENTURY. 



250 THE CITIES OF GEEMANY. [l260. 

Mayence 90,000, Worms 60,000, and Ratisbon on the Danube 
upwards of 120,000. The cities of the Rhine had agencies in 
England and other countries, carried on commerce on the high 
seas, and owned no less than 600 armed vessels, with which 
they guarded the Rhine from the land-pirates whose castles 
overlooked its course. 

During this age of civil and religious despotism, tlie Ger- 
man cities possessed and preserved the only free institutions 
to be found. They owed this privilege to the heroic resistance 
of the republican cities of Italy to the Hohenstaufens , wliich 
not only set them an example but fought in their stead. Sure 
of the loyalty of the German cities, the EmjDcrors were not so 
jealous of their growth; but some of the rights which they 
conferred were reluctantly given, and probably in return for 
men or money during the wars in Italy. The decree which 
changed a vassal, or dependent, into a free man, after a year's 
residence in a city, helped greatly to build up a strong and 
intelligent middle-class. The merchants, professional men and 
higher artizans gradually formed a patrician society, out of 
which the governing officers were selected, while the mecha- 
nics, for greater protection, organized themselves into separate 
guilds, or orders. Each of the latter was very watchful of 
the character and reputation of its members, and thus exer- 
cised a strong moral influence. The farmers, only, had no 
such protection: very few of them were not dependent vassals 
of some nobleman or priest. 

The cities, in the thirteenth century, began to exhibit a 
stately architectural character. The building of splendid 
cathedrals and monasteries, which began two centuries before, 
now gave employment to such a large number of architects 
and stone-cutters, that they formed a free corjooration, under 
the name of ^'Brother-builders," with especial rights and privi- 
leges, all over Germany. Their labors were supported by the 
power of the Church, the wealth of the merchants and the toil 
of the vassals, and the masterpieces of Gothic architecture 



Give some instances of tlieir population. Wliat commerce had the cities 
of the Rhine? To wliat did the German cities owe their freedom? What 
decree helped to build them up? What Bocieties were formed in them? What 
class had no protection? What of the architecture of the cities? 



260.J 



UNIVERSITIES. 



251 



arose under their hands. The grand Cathedrals of StrasLurg, 
Freiburg and Cologne, with many others, yet remain as monu- 
ments of their genius and skill. But the private dwellings, 
also, now began to display the wealth and taste of their owners. 
They were usually built very high, with pointed gables facing 
the street, and adorned with sculptured designs: frequently 
the upp^ stories projected over the lower, forming a shelter 
for the open shops in the first story. As the cities were walled 
for defence, the space 
within the walls was too 
valuable to be given to 
wide squares and streets : 
hence there was usually 
one open market-place, 
which also served for all 
public ceremonies, and the 
streets were dark and 




narrow. 

In spite of the pre- 
vailing power of the Ro- 
man Church, the Universi- 
ties now began to exercise 
some influence. Those of 
Bologna and Padua were 
frequented by throngs of 
students, who attended 
the schools of law , while 
the University of Salerno, 

under the patronage of Manfred, became a distinguished school 
of medicine. The Arabic university of Cordova, in Spain, also 
attracted many students from all the Christian lands of Europe. 
Works on all branches of knowledge were greatly multiplied, 
so that the copying of them became a new profession. For 
the first time, there were written forms of law for the in- 
struction of the people. In the northern part of Germany 
appeared a work called *'The Saxon's Looking-Glass," which 



CITY DWBIiLINGS. 



What masterpieces remain? Ho-,v were the private houses constructed? 
What was the manner of laying out cities? What Universities were distin- 
guished? What Arabic university was there? What new profession arose? 



252 CLASSES OF THE PEOPLE. [l2G0. 

was soon accepted as a legal authority by the j^eoplc. But it 
was too liberal for the priests, and under their influence 
another work ''The Suabiau's Looking-Glass" — was written 
and circulated in Southern Germany. The former book de- 
clares that the Emperor has his power from God; the latter 
that he has it from the Pope. The Saxon is told that no man 
can justly hold another man as property, and that the people 
were made vassals through force and wrong; the Suabian is 
taught that obedience to rulers is his chief duty. 

From these two works, which are still in existence, we 
learn how complicated was the political organization of Ger- 
many. The whole free pojDulation was divided into seven 
classes, each having its own privileges and rules of government. 
First, there was the Emperor : secondly, the Spiritual Princes, 
as they were called (Archbishops, reigning Bishops, &c.). 
Thirdly , the Temporal Princes , some of whom were partly or 
wholly "Vassals" of the Spiritual authority; and fourthly, the 
Counts and Barons who possessed territory, either indepen- 
dently, or as Lelien of the second and third classes. These 
four classes constituted the higher nobility, by whom the Em- 
peror was chosen, and each of whom had the right to be a 
candidate. Seven princes were siDecially entitled "Electors," 
because the nomination of a candidate for Emperor came from 
them. There were three Spiritual — the Archbishops ofMayence, 
Treves and Cologne ; and four Temporal — the Dukes of Bava- 
ria and Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg and the king 
of Bohemia. 

The fifth class embraced the free citizens from among 
whom magistrates were chosen , and who were allowed to 
possess certain privileges of the nobles. The sixth and seventh 
classes were formed out of the remaining freemen, according 
to their circumstances and occupations. The serfs and depen- 
dents had no place in this system of government, so that a 
large majority of the German people possessed no other recog- 



What work appeared in the North of Germany? What other was written, 
and why? How did the two differ? How was the population divided? What 
was first? What was tlie second class? The third? The fourth? What did 
these four constitute? Who were the Electors? What was the fiftli class? 
The sixth and seventh? 



12H0.J LITERATUKE UNDER THE HOHEXSTAUFEXS. 253 

nii^ed right than that of being ruled and punished. In fact, 
the whole political system was so complicated and unpractical 
that we can only wonder how Germany endured it for cen- 
turies afterwards. 

At the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty there were 116 
priestly ri^rs, 100 ruling dukes, princes, counts and barons, 
and more than 60 independent cities in Germany. The larger 
dukedoms had been cut up into smaller states, many of which 
exist, either as states or provinces, at this day. Styria and 
Tyrol were separated from Bavaria ; the principalities of West- 
phalia, Anhalt, Holsteiu, Julich, Berg, Cleves, Pomerania and 
Mecklenburg were formed out of Saxony; Suabia was divided 
into Wiirtemberg and Baden, the Palatinate of the Rhine de- 
tached from Franconia and Hesse from Thiiringia. Each of 
the principal German races was distinguished by two colors 
— the Franks red and white, the Suabians red and yellow, the 
Bavarians blue and white, and the Saxons black and white. 
The Saxon hlach, the Frank red^ and the Suabian gold were 
set together as the Imperial colors. 

The chief service of the Hohenstaufens to Germany lay in 
their direct and generous encouragement of art, learning and 
literature. They took up the work commenced by Charle- 
magne, and so disastrously thwarted by his son Ludwigthe Pious, 
and in the course of a hundred years they developed what 
might be called a golden age of architecture and epic poetry, 
so strongly does it contrast w4th the four centuries before 
and the three succeeding it. The immediate connection between 
Germany and Italy, where the most of Roman culture had sur- 
vived and the higher forms of civilization were first restored, 
was in this single respect a great advantage to the former 
country. We cannot ascertain how many of the nobler cha- 
racteristics of knighthood, in that age, sprang from the reli- 
gious spirit which prompted the Crusades, and how many ori- 
ginated from intercourse with the refined and high-spirited 



What was the position of the serfs? How many small rulers were there? 
What geographical divisions had taken place? How were the races distin- 
guished hy colors? What was the chief service of the Hohenstaufens? How 
does the age contrast with those before and after it? Whrat was an advan- 
tage to Germany? 



254 GERMAN EPIC POEMS. [l2C0. 

Saracens; both elements, undoubtedly, tended to revive the 
almost forgotten love of poetry in the German race. 

When the knights of Provence and Italy became as proud 
of their songs as of their feats of arms; when minstrels ac- 
companied the court of Frederick II. and the Emperor himself 
wrote poems in rivalry with them ; when the Duke of Austria 
and tlie Landgrave Hermann of Thuringia invited the best 
poets of the time to visit them and received them as distin- 
guished guests, and when wandering minstrels and story-tellers 
repeated their works in a simpler form to the people every- 
where, it was not long before a new literature was created. 
Walter von der Yogelweide, who accompanied Frederick 11. to 
Jerusalem, wrote not only songs of love and poems in praise 
of Nature, but satires against the Pope and the priesthood. 
Godfrey of Strasburg produced an epic poem describing the times 
of king Arthur of the Round Table, and Wolfram of Eschenbach, 
in his ''Parcival," celebrated the search for the Holy Grail; 
while inferior poets related the histories of iilexander the Great, 
the Siege of Troy, or Charlemagne's knight, Roland. Among 
the people arose the story of Reynard the Fox, and a multi- 
tude of fables; and finally, during the thirteenth century, was 
produced the celebrated Nibehinc/enUed, or Song of the Nibel- 
ungen, wherein traditions of Siegfried of the Netherlands, 
Theodoric the Ostrogoth and Attila with his Huns are mixed 
together in a powerful story of love, rivalry and revenge. The 
most of these poems are written in a Suabian dialect, which 
is now called the "Middle (or Mediasval) High-German." 

Among the historical writers were Bishop Otto of Friesing, 
whose chronicles of the time are very valuable, and Saxo 
Grammaticus, in whose history of Denmark Sliakspeare found 
the material for his play of Hamlet. Albertus Magnus, the 
Bishop of Ratisbon, was so distinguished as a mathematician 
and man of science that the people believed him to be a sor- 
cerer. There was, in short, a general intellectual awakening 



What eleraentg helped to restore literature? What circumstance favored 
the change? Who was Walter von der Vogelweide? Mention some of the 
epic poems. What arose among the people? What was the Song of the 
Nibelungen? In' what dialect are thesf0 poems written? What historical 
writers were there? What learned man? 



1272.] DEATH OP RICHARD OF CORNWALL. 255 

throughout Germany, and, although afterwards discouraged by 
many of the 276 smaller powers, it was favored by others and 
could not be suppressed. Besides, greater changes were ap- 
proaching. A hundred years after Frederick II. 's death gun- 
powder was discovered, and the common soldier became the 
equal of the knight. In another hundred years, Gutenberg 
invented printing, and then followed, rapidly, the Discovery 
of America and the Reformation. 



CHAPTER XX. 

FROM RUDOLF OF HAPSBURQ TO LUDWIG THE BAVARIAN. 

(1273—1347.) 

Rudolf of Hapsburg.— His Election as Emperor. — Meeting with Pope Gre- 
gory X. — War with Ottokar II. of Bohemia.— Rudolf's Victories.— Diet 
of Augsburg.— Suppression of Robber-Knights. — Rudolfs Second Marriage. 
— His Death.— His Character and Habits. — Adolf of Nassau Elected.— His 
Rapacity and Dishonesty. — Albert of Hapsburg Rival Emperor. — Adolf's 
Death.— Albert's Character. — Quarrel with Pope Bonifacius.— Albert's Plans. 
— Revolt of the Swiss Cantons. — John Parricida murders the Emperor. — 
The Popes remove to Avignon.— Henry of Luxemburg elected Emperor. — 
His Efforts to restore Peace. — His Welcome to Italy, and Coronation. — 
He is PoisoneJ.— Ludwig of Bavaria Elected. — Battle of Morgarten. — Fre- 
derick of Austria Captured. — The Papal ^'Interdict". —Conspiracy of Leo- 
pold of Austria. — Ludwig's Visit to Italy. — His Superstition and Cow- 
ardice. — His Efforts to be Reconciled to the Pope. — Treachery of Philip VI. 
of France. — The Convention at Reuse.- Alliance with England.- Ludwig's 
Unpopularity. — Karl of Bohemia Rival Emperor. — Ludwig's Death.— The 
German Cities. 

Richard of Cornwall died in 1272, and the German princes 
seemed to be in no haste to elect a successor. The Pope, 
Gregory X., finally demanded an election, for the greater con- 
venience of having to deal with one head, instead of a multi- 
tude; and the Archbishop of Mayence called a Diet together 
at Frankfort, the following year. He proposed, as candidate, 



What changes were approaching, and when did they come? 
Wiien did Richard of Cornwall die? Who demanded an election, and who 
called a Diet? 

12 



256 EUDOLF OF HAPSBUKG. [l273. 

Count Rudolf of Hapsburg (or Habsburg), a petty ruler in 
Switzerland, who had also possessions in Alsatia. Up to his 
time the family had been insignificant ; but, as a zealous parti- 
san of Frederick 11. in whose excommunication he had shared, 
as a crusader against the heathen Prussians, and finally, in 
his maturer years, as a man of great prudence, moderation 
and firmness, he had made the name of Hapsburg generally 
and quite favorably known. His brother-in-law. Count Fre- 
derick of Hohenzollern, the Burgrave, or Governor, of the city 
of Nuremberg (and the founder of the present house of the 
HohenzoUerns), advocated Rudolfs election among the members 
of the Diet. The chief considerations in his favor were his 
personal character, his lack of power, ard the circumstance of 
his possessing six marriageable daughters. There were also 
private stipulations which secured him the support of the 
priesthood, and so he was elected King of Germany. 

Rudolf was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. At the close of 
the ceremony it was discovered that the Imperial sceptre was 
missing, whereupon he took a crucifix from the altar, and held 
it forth to the princes, who came to swear allegiance to his 
rule. He was at this time 55 years of age, extremely tall 
and lank, with a haggard face and large aquiline nose. Al- 
though he was always called "Emperor'* by the people, he 
never received, or even desired, the Imperial Crown of Rome. 
He was in the habit of saying that Rome was the den of the 
lion, into which led the tracks of many other animals, but none 
were seen leading out of it again. 

It was easy for him, therefore, to conclude a peace with 
the Pope. He met Gregory X. at Lausanne, and there formally 
renounced all claim to the rights held by the Hohenstaufens 
in Italy. He even recognized Charles of Anjou as king of 
Sicily and Naples , and betrothed one of his daughters to the 
latter's son. The Church of Rome received possession of all 
the territory it had claimed in Central Italy, and the Lombard 



"Who was proposed as candidate? How had he made his name known? 
Who was his principal supporter? What were the considerations urged in 
his favor? What happened at his coronation? What was his age and ajj- 
pearance? What was his feeling towards Rome? Where did he meet the 
Pope, and wliat did he renounce? 



1274.] 



FIRST TROUBLES OF HIS REIGN. 



257 



and Tuscan republics were left for awhile undisturbed. lie 
further promised to undertake a new Crusade for the recovery 
of Jerusalem, and was 
then solemnly recog- 
nized by Gregory X. 
as rightful king of 
Germany. 

But, although Ru- 
dolf had so readily 
given up all for which 
theHohenstaufens had 
struggled in Italy, he 
at once claimed their 
estates in Germany as 
belonging to the 
crown. This brought 
him into conflict with 
Counts Ulric and 
Eberhard II. of Wiir- 
temberg, who were 
also allied with king 
Ottokar II. of Bo- 
hemia, in opposition 
to his authority. The 
latter had obtained 
possession of Austria, 
through marriage, and 
of all Styria and Ca- 
rinthia to the Adriatic, 
by purchase. He was 
ambitious and defiant : 




EUDOLP OF HAPSEUHG. 



some historians sup- 
pose that he hoped 

to make himself Emperor of Germany, others that his object 
was to establish a powerful Slavonic nation. Rudolf did not 
delay long in declaring him outlawed, and in calling upon the 



What did the Church of Rome receive? What else did he promise? What 
did Rudolf claim in Germany? Who opposed him? What countries did 
king Ottokar now possess? V/hat were his plana supposed to be? 



258 DEFEAT OF OTTOKAR OF BOHEMIA. [l27b. 

other princes for an army to lead against him. The call was 
received with indiliurence : no one feared the new Emperor, 
and hence no one obeyed. 

Gathering together such troops as his son-in-law, Ludwig 
of the Bavarian Palatinate, could furnish, Rudolf marched into 
Austria, after he had restored order in Wiirtemberg. A revolt 
of the Austrian and Styrian nobles against Bohemian rule fol- 
lowed this movement: the country was gradually reconquered, 
and Vienna, after a siege of five weeks, fell into Rudolfs 
hands. Ottokar II. then found it advisable to make peace 
with the man whom he had styled "a poor Count," by giving 
up his claim to Austria, Styria and Carinthia, and paying ho- 
mage to the Emperor of Germany. In October, 1276, the treaty 
was concluded. Ottokar appeared in all the splendor he could 
command, and was received by Rudolf in a costume not very 
different from that of a common soldier. "The Bohemian king- 
has often laughed at my gray coat," he said; "but now my 
coat shall laugh at him." Ottokar was enraged at what he 
considered an insulting humiliation, and secretly plotted re- 
venge. For nearly two years he intrigued with the States of 
Northern Germany and the Poles, collected a large army under 
the pretext of conquering Hungary, and suddenly declared war 
against Rudolf. 

The Emperor was only supported by the Count of Tyrol, 
by Frederick of Hohenzollern and a few bishops, but he pro- 
cured the alliance of the Hungarians, and then marched against 
Ottokar with a much inferior force. Nevertheless, he was 
completely victorious in the battle which took place, on the 
river March, in August, 1278. Ottokar was killed, and his 
Saxon and Bavarian allies scattered. Rudolf used his victory 
with a moderation which secured him new advantages. He 
married one of his daughters to Wenzel, Ottokar's son, and 
allowed him the crown of Bohemia and Moravia; he gave 
Carinthia to the Count of Tyrol, and Austria and Styria to his 



How was Rudolf diipported by the German States? What followed his 
march into Austria? How did Ottokar agree to make peace, and when? De- 
scribe the meeting of the two? What was Ottokar's course, afterwards? Who 
supported Hudolf this time? When did the battle take place, and with what 
rcciult? 



1278.] 



FOUNDATION OF THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. 



259 



own sons, Rudolf and Albert. Towards the other German 
princes he was so conciliatory and forbearing that they found 
no cause for further opposition. Thus the influence of the 




EUDOLPH's treaty with OTTAKAR II. 



House of Hapsburg was permanently founded, and — curiously 
enough, when we consider the later history of Germany — 
chiefly by the help of the founder of the House of Hohenzollern. 



What were Rudolfs measures, after his victory? How did he act towards 
the other princes? How was the house of Hapsburg founded? 



260 EUDOLf's successes. [i285. 

After spending five years in Austria, and securing the 
results of his victory, Rudolf returned to the interior of Ger- 
many. A Diet held at Augsburg in 1282 confirmed his sons 
in their new sovereignties, and his authoiity as German Em- 
peror was thenceforth never seriously opposed. He exerted all 
his influence over the princes in endeavoring to settle the 
numberless disputes which arose out of the law by which the 
territory and rule of the father were divided among many 
sons, — or, in case there ^vere no direct heirs , which gave more 
than one relative an equal claim. He proclaimed a National 
Peace, or cessation of quaiTels between the States, and thereby 
aocompUshed some good, although the order was only partially 
obeyed. At a Diet which he held in Erfiirt, he urged the 
strongest measures for the suppression of knightly robbery. 
Sixty castles of the noble highwaymen were razed to the 
ground, and more than thirty of the titled vagabonds expiated 
their crimes on the scafi'old. In all the measures which he 
undertook for the general welfare of the country he succeeded 
as far as was possible at such a time. 

In his schemes of personal ambition, however, the Emperor 
was not so successful. His attempt to make his eldest son Duke 
of Suabia failed completely. Then in order to establish a right 
to Burgundy, he married, at tlie age of 66, the sister of Count 
Robert, a girl of only fourteen. Although he gained some few 
advantages in Western Switzerland, he was resisted by the 
city of Berne, and all he accomplished in the end was the 
stirring up of a new hostility to Germany, and a ne^v friend- 
ship for France, throughout the whole of Burgundy. On the 
eastern frontier, however, the Empire was enlarged by the 
voluntary annexation of Silesia to Bohemia, in exchange for 
protection against the claims of Poland. 

In 1290 Rudolfs eldest son, of the same name, died, and 
at a Diet held in Frankfort the following year he endeavored 
to procure the election of his son Albert, as his successor. A 



When and where was Rudolfs authority confirmed? What did he endeavor 
to accomplish? What did he proclaim? How did he act towards the robber- 
knights? What of his personal ambition? How did he endeavor to acquire 
Burgundy? How did he succeed? How was the eastern frontier of Germany 
extended? 



1291.J kudolf's death. 261 

• 

majority of the bishops and princes decided to postpone the 
question, and Rudolf left the city, deeply mortified. He soon 
afterwards fell ill, and, being warned by the physician that 
his case was serious, he exclaimed: "Well, then, now for 
Speyer!" — the old burial-place of the German Emperors. 
But before reaching there he died, in July, 1291, aged seventy- 
three years. 

Rudolf of Hapsburg was very popular among the common 
people, on account of his frank, straight-forward manner, and 
the simplicity of his habits. He was a complete master of his 
own passions, and in this respect contrasted remarkably with 
the rash and impetuous Hohenstaufens. He never showed 
impatience or irritation, but was always good-humored, full 
of jests and shrewd sayings, and accessible to all classes. 
When supplies were short, he would pull up a turnip, peel and 
eat it in the presence of his soldiers, to show that he fared no 
better than they ; he would refuse a drink of water unless there 
was enough for all; and it is related that once, on a cold day, 
he went into the shop of a baker in Mayence to warm himself, 
and was greatly amused when the good housewife insisted on 
turning him out as a suspicious character. Nevertheless, he 
could not overcome the fascination which the Hohenstaufen 
name still exercised over the people. The idea of Barbarossa's 
return had already taken root among them, and more than 
one impostor, who claimed to be the dead Emperor, found 
enough of followers to disturb Rudolfs reign. 

An Imperial authority like that of Otto the Great or Bar- 
barossa had not been restored; yet Rudolfs death left the 
Empire in a more orderly condition, and the many small ru- 
lers were more willing to continue the forms of Government. 
But the Archbishop Gerard of Mayence , who had bargained 
secretly with Count Adolf of Nassau, easily persuaded the 
Electors that it was impolitic to preserve the power in one 
family, and he thus secured their votes for Adolf, who was 



When vras the next Diet held, and what was done? When, and under 
what circumstances, did Rudolph die? Why was he popular? How did he 
contrast with the Hohenstaufens? Give some instances of his shnple habits. 
What influence still remained, and disturbed his reign? How was the Em- 
pire left at his death? 



262 ADOLF OF NASSAU. [l295. 

crowned shortly afterwards. The latter was even poorer than 
Rudolf of Hapsburg had been , but without either his wisdom 
or honesty. He was forced to part with so many Imperial 
privileges to secure his election, that his first policy seems to 
have been to secure money and estates for himself. He sold 
to Visconti of Milan the Viceroyalty over Lombardy, which 
he claimed as still being a German right, and received from 
Edward I. of England £100,000 sterling as the price of his 
alliance in a war against Philip IV. of France. Instead, how- 
ever, of keeping his part of the bargain, he used some of the 
money to purchase Thiiringia of the Landgrave Albert, who 
was carrying on an unnatural quarrel with his two sons, Fre- 
derick and Dietzmann, and thus disposed of their inheritance. 
Albert (surnamed the Degenerate) also disposed of the Count- 
ship of Meissen in the same way, and when the people resisted 
the transfer, their lands were terribly devastated by Adolf of 
Nassau. This course was a direct interference with the rights 
of reigning families, a violation of the law of inheritance, and 
it excited great hostility to Adolf's rule among the other 
princes. 

The rapacity of the new Emperor, in fact, was the cause 
of his speedy downfall. In order to secure the support of the 
Bishops , he had promised them the tolls on vessels sailing up 
and down the Rhine, while the abolition of the same tolls was 
promised to the free cities on that river. The Archbishop of 
Mayence sent word to him that he had other Emperors in his 
pocket, but Adolf paid little heed to his remonstrances. Albert 
of Hapsburg, son of Rudolf, turned the general dissatisfaction 
to his own advantage. He won his brother-in-law, Wenzel 11. 
of Bohemia, to his side, and purchased the alliance of Philip 
the Fair of France by yielding to him the possession of por* 
tions of Burgundy and Flanders. After private negotiations 
with the German princes, both spiritual and temporal, the 



Who was elected Emperor, and why? What was he? What was his first 
policy? What did he sell in Italy? What bargain did he make with Eng- 
land? How did he keep it? What territory did he ravage? What was the 
effect of this course? What occasioned Adolfs downfall? What bargain had 
he made with the Bishops and cities? What message was sent to him? Who 
took advantage of his unpopularity? Who supported Albert? 



1298.] ALBEET OF HAPSBURG. 263 

Archbishop of Mayence called a Diet together in that city , in 
June, 1298. Adolf was declared to have forfeited the crown, 
and Albert was elected in his stead by all the Electors except 
Treves and Bavaria. 

Within ten days after the election the rivals met in battle : 
both had foreseen the struggle, and had made hasty prepara- 
tions to meet it. Adolf fought with desperation, even after 
being wounded, and finally came face to face with Albert, on 
the field. "Here you must yield the Empire to me ! " he cried, 
drawing his sword. "That rests with God," was Albert's 
answer, and he struck Adolf dead. After this victory, the 
German princes nevertheless required that Albert should be 
again elected before being crowned, since they feared that this 
precedent of choosing a rival monarch might lead to trouble 
in the future. 

Albert of Hapsburg was a hard, cold man , with all of his 
father's will and energy, yet without his moderation and 
shrewdness. He was haughty and repellant in his manner, 
and from first to last made no friends. He was one-eyed, on 
account of a singular cure which had been practised upon him. 
Having become very ill, his physicians suspected that he was 
poisoned: they thereupon hung him up by the heels, and took 
one eye out of its socket, so that the poison might thus escape 
from his head! The single aim of his life was to increase the 
Imperial power and secure it to his own family. Whether his 
measures conduced to the welfare of Germany , or not, was a 
question which he did not consider, and therefore whatever 
good he accomplished was simply accidental. 

Although Albert had agreed to yield many privileges to 
the Church, the Pope, Bonifacius \ HI., refused to acknowledge 
him as king of Germany , declaring that the election was null 
and void. But the same Pope, by his haughty assumptions of 
authority over all monarchs, had drawn upon himself the en- 
mity of Philip the Fair, of France, and Albert made a new al- 
liance with the latter. He also obtained the support of the 



When and where was the Diet held? V^hat event followed it? Describe 
the battle. What did the German princes then do? What kind of a man was 
Albert of Hapsburg? How did he become one-eyed? What was the aim of 
his life? By whom was his election opnosed? What new alliance took place? 



264 FOUNDATION OF SWITZEKLAND. [l307 

cities, on promising to abolish the Rhine-dues , and with their 
help completely subdued the Archbishops, who claimed the 
dues and refused to give them up. This was a great advan- 
tage, not only for the Rhine -cities, but for all Germany: it 
tended to strengthen the power of the increasing middle-class. 

The Pope, finding his plans thwarted and his authority 
defied, now began to make friendly overtures to Albert. He 
had already excommunicated Philip the Fair, and claimed the 
right to dispose of the crown of France, which he off*ered to 
Albert in return for the latter's subjection to him and armed 
assistance. There was danger to Germany in this tempting 
bait; but in 1303, Bonifacius, having been taken prisoner 
near Rome by his Italian enemies , became insane from rage, 
and soon died. 

Albert's stubborn and selfish attempts to increase the 
power of his house all failed: their only result was a wider 
and keener spirit of hostility to his rule. He claimed Thiirin- 
gia and Meissen, alleging that Adolf of Nassau had purchased 
those lands, not for himself but for the Empire ; he endeavored 
to get possession of Holland, whose line of ruling Counts had 
become extinct ; and after the death of Wenzel H. of Bohemia, 
in 1307, he married his son, Rudolf, to the latter's widow. 
But Counts Frederick and Dietzmann of Thiiringia defeated 
his army : the people of Holland elected a descendant of their 
Counts on the female side, and the Emperor's son, Rudolf, died 
in Bohemia, apparently poisoned, before two years were out. 
Then the Swiss cantons of Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, 
which had been governed by civil officers appointed by the 
Emperors , rose in revolt against him, and drove his governors 
from their Alpine valleys. In November, 1307, that famous 
league was formed, by which the three cantons maintained 
their independence , and laid the first corner-stone of the Re- 
public of Switzerland. 

The following May, 1308, Albert was in Baden, raising 



What other assistance did Albert secure, and how? "What offers did the 
Pope now make? When, and under what circumstances, did he die? What 
was the result of Albert's policy ? How did he attempt to increase his power? 
How were all these attempts thwarted? What new rebellion took place? 
Wlien was the Swiss Kepublic born? What were the three Cantons? 



1308.J 



MUEDER or ALBERT OF HAPSBURa. 



265 



troops for a new campaign in Thuringia. His nephew, John, 
a youth of 19, who had vainly endeavored to have his right 
to a part of the Hapsburg territory in Switzerland confirmed 
by the Emperor, was with him, accompanied by four knights, 




GERMAN FARM-HOUSE DSJ THE MIDDLE AGES. 

with whom he had conspired. Wliile crossing a river, they 
managed to get into the same boat with the Emperor, leaving 
the rest of his retinue upon the other bank ; then , when they 
had landed, they fell upon him, murdered him, and fled. A 
peasant woman, who was near, lifted Albert upon her lap and 



What was the grievance of Albert's nephew? 



266 HENRY OF LUXEMBURG. [l309. 

he died in her arms. His widow, the Empress Elizabeth, took 
a horrible revenge upon the families of the conspirators, whose 
relatives and even their servants, to the number of 1000, 
were executed. One of the knights, who was captured, was 
broken upon the wheel. John , called in history John Parri- 
cida , was never heard of afterwards , although one tradition 
affirms that he fled to Rome, confessed his deed to the Pope, 
and passed the rest of his life, under another name, in a mon- 
astery. 

Thus, within five years, the despotic plans of both Pope 
Bonifacius VIII. and Albert of Hapsburg came to a tragic end. 
The overwhelming power of the Papacy, after a triumph of 
two hundred years, was broken. The second Pope after Boni- 
facius, Clement V., made Avignon, in Southern France, his 
capital instead of Rome, and the former city continued to be 
the residence of the Popes , from 1 308 , the year of Albert's 
murder, until 1377. 

The German Electors were in no hurry to choose a new 
Emperor. They were only agreed as to who should not be 
elected, — that is , no member of a powerful family ; but it was 
not so easy to pick out an acceptable candidate from among 
the many inferior princes. The Church, as usual, decided the 
question. Peter, of Mayence (who had been a physician and 
was made Archbishop for curing the Pope), intrigued with 
Baldwin, Archbishop of Treves, in favor of the latter's brother, 
Count Henry of Luxemburg. A Diet was held at the "King's 
Seat," on the hill of Reuse, near Coblentz, where the blast of 
a hunting-horn could be heard in four Electorates at the same 
time, and Henry was chosen king. He was crowned at Aix- 
la-Chapelle on the 6th of January, 1309, as Henry VII. 

His first aim was to restore peace and order to Germany. 
He was obliged to reestablish the Rhine-dues , in the interest 
of the Archbishops who had supported him, but he endeavored 
to recompense the cities by granting them other privileges. 



"What deed did he commit? What revenge did the Empress take? What 
was the murderer called, and what became of him? What change took place 
in the Papacy? How long were the Popes at Avignon? Why did the Ger- 
man Electors delay? Who suggested a candidate? Who was the latter 
Where was he elected, and when crowned? What was Henry Vll.'s ftr»t 
measure ? 



1310.J HIS MAECH TO ITALY. 267 

At a Diet held in Speyer, he released the three Swiss cantons 
from their allegiance to the house of Hapsburg , gave Austria 
to the sons of the murdered Albert, and had the bodies of the 
latter and his rival, Adolf of Nassau , buried in the Cathedral, 
side by side. Soon afterwards the Bohemians, dissatisfied with 
Henry of Carinthia (who had become their king after the death 
of Albert's son, Rudolf), oflfered the hand of Wenzel II.'s young- 
est daughter, Elizabeth, to Henry's son, John. Although the 
latter was only 14, and his brid^ 22 years of age, Henry gave 
his consent to the marriage, and John became king of Bohemia. 

In 1310 the new Emperor called a Diet at Frankfort, in 
order to enforce a universal truce among the German States. 
He outlawed Count Eberhard of Wiirtemberg, and took away 
his power to create disturbance; and then, Germany being 
quiet, he turned his attention to Italy, which was in a deplo- 
rable state of confusion, from the continual wars of the Guelfs 
and the Ghibellines. In Lombardy, noble families had usurped 
the control of the former repubhcan cities , and governed with 
greater tyranny than ever the Hohenstaufens. Henry's object 
was to put an end to their civil wars, institute a new order, 
and — be crowned Roman Emperor. The Pope , Clement V., 
who was tired of Avignon and suspicious of France , was se- 
cretly in favor of the p\an, and the German princes openly 
supported it. 

Towards the close of 1310, Henry VH. crossed Mont Cenis 
with an army of several thousand men , and was welcomed 
with great pomp in Milan , where he was crowned with the 
iron crown of Lombardy. The poet Dante hailed him as a sa- 
viour of Italy, and all parties formed the most extravagant 
expectations of the advantage they would derive from his com- 
ing. The P^mperor seems to have tried to act with entire im- 
partiality, and consequently both parties were disappointed. 
The Guelfs first rose against him , and instead of peace a new 
war ensued. He was not able to march to Rome until 1312, 



What did he do at the Diet of Speyer ? What did the Bohemians offer to 
him? When was the next Diet called, and why? What were the Emperor's 
measures? What was the state of things in Lombardy? What was Henry's 
object? Who favored and supported Jjie plan? Give the particulars of the 
march to Italy. How was the Emperor hailed, and by whom? How did he 
act? What was the result? 



268 LUDWIG THE BAVAEIAN ELECTED. [l314. 

and by that time the city was again divided into two hostile 
parties. With the help of the Colonnas, he gained possession 
of the southern bank of the Tiber, and was crowned Emperor 
in the Lateran Church by a Cardinal, since there was no Pope 
in Rome : the Orsini family, who were hostile to him, held pos- 
session of the other part of the city, including St. Peter's and 
the Vatican. 

There were now indications that all Italy would be con- 
vulsed with a repetition of the old struggle. The Guelfs ral- 
lied around king Robert of Naples as their head, while king 
Frederick of Sicily and the Republic of Pisa declared for the 
Emperor. France and the Pope were about to add new ele- 
ments to the quarrel, when in August, 1313, Henry VII. died 
of poison, administered to him by a monk, in the sacramental 
wine, — one of the most atrocious forms of crime which can be 
imagined. He was a man of many noble personal qualities, 
and from whom much was hoped, both in Germany and Italy; 
but his reign was too short for the attainment of any lasting 
results. , 

When the Electors came together at Frankfort, in 1314, 
it was found that their votes were divided between two can- 
didates. Henry VII.'s son , king John of Bohemia , was only 
1 7 years old, and the friends of his house , not believing that 
he could be elected, united on Duke Ludwig of Bavaria, a des- 
cendant of Otto of Wittelsbach. On the other hand, the friends 
of the house of Hapsburg, with the combined influence of 
France and the Pope on their side, proposed Frederick of Aus- 
tria, the son of the Emperor Albert. There was a division of 
the Diet , and both candidates were elected ; but Ludwig had 
four of the seven chief Electors on his side , he reached Aix- 
la-Chapelle first and was there crowned, and thus he was con- 
sidered to have the best right to the Imperial dignity. 

Ludwig of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria had been bo- 
6om-friends until a short time previous; but they were now 



When did he visit Kome, and how did he find it? What were the circum- 
stances of his visit and coronation? How were the parties now divided? 
When and how did Henry die? What was his character and reign? When 
and where did the Electors meet? Whom did Henry's friends choose, and 
why? Who was the other candidate, and how supported? What was there- 
suit? Who had the advantage? 



1322.] CAPTURE OF FREDERICK OF AUSTRIA. 269 

rivals and deadly enemies. For eight long years a civil war 
devastated Germany. On Frederick's side were Austria, Hun- 
gary, the Palatinate of the Rhine, and the Archbishop of Co- 
logne , with the German nobles , as a class : on Ludwig's side 
were Bavaria, Bohemia, Thiiringia, the cities and the middle 
class. Frederick's brother, Leopold, in attempting to subju- 
gate the Swiss cantons, the freedom of which had been con- 
firmed by Ludwig, suffered a crushing defeat in the famous battle 
of Morgarten, fought in 1315. The Austrian force in this 
battle was 9000, the Swiss 1300: the latter lost 15 men, the 
former 1500 soldiers and 640 knights. From that day the 
freedom of the Swiss was secured. 

The Pope, John XXII., declared that he only had the right 
of deciding between the two rival sovereigns, and used all the 
means in his power to assist Frederick. The war was pro- 
longed until 1322, when, in a battle fought at Miihldorf, near 
Salzburg , the struggle was decided. After a combat of ten 
hours, the Bavarians gave way, and Ludwig narrowly escaped 
capture ; then the Austrians , mistaking a part of the latter's 
army for the troops of Leopold , which were expected on the 
field, were themselves surrounded, and Frederick, with 1400 
knights, taken prisoner. The battle was, in fact, an earlier 
Waterloo in its character. Ludwig saluted Frederick with 
the words: *'We are glad to see you. Cousin!" and then im- 
prisoned him in a strong castle. 

There was now a truce in Germany, but no real peace. 
Ludwig felt himself strong enough to send some troops to the 
relief of Duke Visconti of Milan, who was hard pressed by a 
Neapolitan army, in the interest of the Pope. For this act, 
John XXII. not only excommunicated and cursed him offici- 
ally, but extended the Papal "Interdict" over Germany. The 
latter measure was one which formerly occasioned the greatest 
dismay among the poople, but it had now lost much of its 
power. The "Interdict" prohibited all priestly offices in the 



What were the relations between the two? What war followed? How were 
the parties divided? Where, when and by whom was Leopold of Austria 
defeated? What were the forces, and losses, on both sides? When and how 
was the war in Germany ended? Describe the battle. How did Ludwig and 
Frederick meet? Why was Ludwig excommunicated? What else did tha 
Pope do? 



270 RECONCILIATION OF LUDWIG AND FREDERICK. [l326 

lands to which it was applied. The churches were closed, the 
bells were silent, no honors were paid to the dead, and it was 
even ordered that the marriage ceremony should be performed 
in the churchyards. But the German people refused to sub- 
mit to such an outrage ; the few priests who attempted to obey 
the Pope, were either driven away or compelled to perform 
their religious duties as usual. 

The next event in the struggle was a conspiracy of Leo- 
pold of Austria with Charles IV. of France, favored by the 
Pope, to overthrow Ludwig. But the other German princes 
who were concerned in it quietly withdrew when the time came 
for action, and the plot failed. Then Ludwig, tired of his 
trials, sent his prisoner Frederick to Leopold as a mediator, 
the former promising to return and give himself up, if he 
should not succeed. Leopold was implacable, and Frederick 
kept his word, although the Pope offered to relieve him of his 
promise, and threatened him with excommunication for not 
breaking it. Ludwig was generous enough to receive him as 
a friend, to give him his full liberty and dignity, and even to 
divide his royal rule privately with him. The latter arrange- 
ment was so unpractical that it was not openly proclaimed, 
but the good understanding between the two contributed to 
the peace of Germany. Leopold died in 1326, and Ludwig en- 
joyed an undisputed authority. 

In 1327, the Emperor felt himself strong enough to un- 
dertake an expedition to Italy, his object being to relieve 
Lombardy from the aggressions of Naples, and to be crowned 
Emperor in Rome in spite of the Pope. In this , he was tole- 
rably successful. He defeated the Guelfs and was crowned in 
Milan the same year, then marched to Rome, and was crowned 
Emperor early in 1328, under the auspices of the Colonna fa- 
mily, by two excommunicated Bishops. He presided at an as- 
sembly of the Roman people , at which Johann XXII. was de- 
clared a heretic and renegade, and a Franciscan monk elected 



What was the efiFcct of an "Interdict"? How did the Germans receive it? 
"What was the next event? How did it fail? What course did Ludwig try, 
and with what effect? How did Ludwig then treat Frederick? What settled 
Ludwig'8 authority? When did he visit Italy, and with what object? When 
and by whom was he crowned in Rome? 



1330.] QUARKEL WITH THE POPE. 271 

Pope, under the name of Martin V. Ludwig, however, soon 
became as unpopular as any of his predecessors, and from the 
same cause — the imposition of heavy taxes upon the people, 
in order to keep up his imperial state. He remained two years 
longer in Italy, encountering as much hate as friendship, and 
was then recalled to Germany by the death of Frederick of 
Austria. 

The Papal excommunication, which the Hohenstaufen Em- 
perors had borne so easily, seems to have weighed sorely upon 
Ludwig's mind. He was a weak, vacillating nature, capable 
of only a limited amount of endurance. He began to fear that 
his soul was in peril, and made the most desperate efforts to 
be reconciled to the Pope. The latter, however, demanded 
his immediate abdication as a preliminary to any further nego- 
tiation, and was supported in this demand by the king of 
France, who was very ambitious of obtaining the crown of Ger- 
many, with the help of the Church. King John of Bohemia 
acted as a go-between, but he was also secretly pledged to 
France, and an agreement was nearly concluded , of a charac- 
ter so cowardly and disgraceful to Ludwig that when some 
hint of it became known, there arose such an angry excitement 
in Germany that the Emperor did not dare to move further in 
the matter. 

John XXH. died about this time (13.34) and was succeeded 
by Benedict XH., a man of a milder and more conciliatory na- 
ture, with whom Ludwig immediately commenced fresh nego- 
tiations. He offered to abdicate, to swear allegiance to the 
Pope, to undergo any humiliation which the latter might im- 
pose upon him. Benedict was quite willing to be reconciled 
to him on these conditions, but the arrangement was prevented 
by Philip YL of France, who hoped, like his father, to acquire 
the crown of Germany. As soon as this became evident, Lud- 
wig adopted a totally different course. In the summer of 1338 
he called a Diet at Frankfort (which was afterwards adjourned 



What else happened in Rome ? Why did Ludwig become unpopular? What 
recalled him to Germany? What was his nature? What did he fear? What 
did he attempt, who supported him, and why? What was the result of the 
agreement? What was Ludwig' a course with the next Pope? What did Lo 
offer to do? Who prevented the arrangement? 



272 THE DIET AT KENSE. [l338. 

to Rense, near Coblentz), and laid the matter before the Bi- 
shops, princes and free cities, which were now represented. 

The Diet unanimously declared that the Emperor had ex- 
hausted all proper means of reconciliation, and the Pope alone 
was responsible for the continuance of the struggle. The ex- 
communication and interdict were pronounced null and void, 
and severe punishments were decreed for the priests who 
should heed them in any way. As it was evident that France 
had created the difficulty, an alliance was concluded with Eng- 
land, whose king, Edward III., appeared before the Diet at 
Coblentz, and procured the acknowledgment of his claim to 
the crown of France. Ludwig, as Emperor, sat upon the Royal 
Seat at Rense, and all the German princes — with the excep- 
tion of king John of Bohemia, who had gone over to France — 
made the solemn declaration that the King and Emperor whom 
they had elected, or should henceforth elect, derived his dignity 
and power from God, and did not require the sanction of the 
Pope. They also bound themselves to defend the rights and 
liberties of the Empire against any assailant whatever. These 
were brave words: but we shall presently see how much they 
were worth. 

The alliance with England was made for seven years* 
Ludwig was to furnish German troops for Edward III.'s army, 
in return for English gold. For a year he was faithful to the 
contract, then the old superstitious fear came over him, and 
he listened to the secret counsels of Philip YI. of France, who 
offered to mediate with the Pope in his behalf. But, after 
Ludwig had been induced to break his word with England, 
PhilijD, having gained what he wanted, prevented his recon- 
ciliation with the Pope. This miserable weakness on the Em 
peror's part quite destroyed his authority in Germany. At the 
same time he was imitating every one of his Imperial prede- 
cessors , in trying to strengthen the power of his family. He 
gave Brandenburg to his eldest son, Ludwig, married his se- 



What did Ludwig next do, when and where? What action did the Diet 
take? What alliance was concluded, and where ? What declaration was made 
by the German princes ? What was the nature of the English alliance? How 
did Ludwig observe it? How did Philip then act towards him? What effect 
was produced by his weakness? 



1347.] DEATH OF LUDWIG THE BAVARIAN. 273 

cond son, Henry, to Margaret of Tyrol, whom he arbitrarily 
divorced from her first husband, a son of John of Bohemia, 
and claimed the sovereignty of Holland as his wife's in- 
heritance. 

Ludwig had now become so unpopular,* that when another 
Pope, Clement VL, in April, 1346 , hurled against him a new 
excommunication, expressed in the most horrible terms, the 
Archbishops made it a pretext for openly opposing the Em- 
peror's rule. They united with the Pope in selecting Karl, 
the son of John of Bohemia (who fell by the sword of the Black 
Prince the same summer, at the famous battle of Crecy), and 
proclaiming him Emperor, in Ludwig's stead. All tiit cities, 
and the temporal princes, except those of Bohemia and Saxony, 
stood faithfully by Ludwig, and Karl could gain no advantage 
over him. He went to France, then to Italy, and finally be- 
took himself to Bohemia , where he was a rival monarch only 
in name. 

In October, 1347, Ludwig, who was then residing in 
Munich, his favorite capital, was stricken with apoplexy while 
hunting, and fell dead from his horse. He was 63 years old, 
and had reigned 33 years. In German history, he is always 
called "Ludwig the Bavarian." During the last ten year^ of 
his reign , many parts of Germany suffered severely from fa- 
mine, and a pestilence Galled *'the black death" carried ofi* 
thousands of persons in every city. These misfortunes pro- 
bably confirmed him in his superstition, and partly account for 
his shameful and degrading policy. The only service which 
his long rule rendered to Germany sprang from the circum- 
stance, that, having been supported by the free cities in his 
war with Frederick of Austria, he was compelled to protect 
them against the aggressions of the princes afterwards, and in 
various ways to increase their rights and privileges. There 
were now 150 such cities, and from this time forwards they 
constituted a separate power in the Empire. They encouraged 



How was he trying to build up his family? Who openly opposed his 
rule, when, and for what reason? Whom did they choose in his stead? Who 
still stood by Urn? What became of Karl? When and how did Ludwig die? 
How Is he called in history? What misfortunes attended the close of his 
reign? What was the only good feature of his reign? How many cities wero 
there? 



274 BARGAINING FOR THE CROWN. [l347. 

learning and literature, favored peace and security of travel 
tor the sake of their commerce, organized and protected the 
mechanic arts, and thus, during the fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries, contributed more to the progress of Germany than 
a^l her spiritual and temporal rulers. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

THE LUXEMBURG EMrERORS, KARL IV. AND WENZEL. 

(1347—1410.) 

The Imperial Crown in the Market.— Giinther of Schwarzbnrg.— Karl IV. 
Emperor.— His Character and Policy. — The University of Prague. — Rienzi 
Tribune of Rome.— Karl's Course in Italy.— The "Golden Bulr^— Its Pro- 
visions and Effect. — Karl's Coronation in Rome.— The Last Ten Years of 
his Reign.— His Death.— Eberhard the Greiner. — The "Hansa" and its Tic- 
tories. — Achievements of the German Order.— Wenzel becomes Emperor. — 
The Suabian League. — The Battle of Sempach.— Independence of Switzer- 
land.— Defeat of the Suabian Cities. — Wenzel's Rule in Prague.— Conspiracy 
agaiust him. — Schism in the Roman Church. — Count Rupert Rival Emperor. 
Convention of Marbach.— Anarchy in Germany.— Death-Blow to the Ger- 
man Order. — Rupert's Death. 

Although the German princes were nearly unanimous in 
the determination that no member of the house of Wittels- 
bach (Bavaria) should again be Emperor, they were by no 
means willing to accept Karl of Luxemburg. Ludwig's son, 
Ludwig of Brandenburg, made no claim to his father's crown, 
but he united with Saxony, Mayence and the Palatinate of the 
Rhine, in offering it to Edward III. of England. When the 
latter declined, they chose Count Ernest of Meissen, who, how- 
ever, sold his claim to Karl for 10,000 silver marks. Then 
they took up Giinther of Schwarzbnrg , a gallant and popular 
prince, who seemed to have a good prospect of success. In 
this emergency, Karl supported the pretensions of an ad- 



How many cities were there? What was achieved by them? 

What was the course of the German Princes? What was that of Ludwig's 
■on? To whom else was the crown offered? Who was then taken up aa 
Rival Emperor? 



1348.] KARL IV. EMPEROR. 275 

venturer, known as "the False Waldemar," to Brandenburg, 
against Ludwig of Bavaria, and thus compelled the latter to 
treat with him. Soon afterwards Giinther of Schwarzburg 




80LDIEE8 ON THE WATCH-TOWEE. 



died, poisoned, it was generally believed, by a physician whom 
Karl had bribed, and by the end of 1348 the latter was Em- 
peror of Germany, as Karl IV. 

At this time he was 33 years old. He had been educated 



What was his fate? 



276 HIS CORONATION IN ROME. [l355. 

in France and Italy, and was an accomplished scholar: he both 
spoke and wrote the Bohemian, German, French, Italian and 
Latin languages. He was a thorough diplomatist, resembling 
in this respect Rudolf of Hapsburg, from whom he differed in 
his love of pomp and state, and in the care he took to keep 
himself always well supplied with money, which he well knew 
how and when to use. He had first purchased the influence 
of the Pope by promising to disregard the declarations of the 
Diet of 1338 at Rense, and by relinquishing all claims to Italy. 
Then he won the free cities to his side by offers of more ex- 
tended privileges; and the German princes, for form's sake, 
elected him a second time, thus acknowledging the Papal au- 
thority which they had so boldly defied, ten years before. 

One of Karl's first acts was to found, in Prague — which 
city he selected as his capital — the first German University, 
which he endowed so liberally and organized so thoroughly 
that in a few years it was attended by six or seven thousand 
students. For several years afterwards he occupied himself 
in establishing order throughout Germany, and meanwhile ne- 
gotiated with the Pope in regard to his coronation as Roman 
Emperor. In spite of his complete submission to the latter, 
there were many difficulties to be overcome, arising out of 
the influence of France over the Papacy, which was still estab- 
lished at Avignon. Karl arrested Rienzi, "the last Tribune 
of Rome," and kept him for a time imprisoned in Prague ; but 
when the latter was sent back to Rome as Senator by Pope 
Innocent VI., in 1354, Karl was allowed to commence his Ita- 
lian journey. He was crowned Roman Emperor on the 5th of 
April, 1355, by a Cardinal sent from Avignon for that pur- 
pose. In compliance with his promise to Pope Innocent, he 
remained in Rome only a single day. 

Instead of attempting to settle the disorders which con- 
vulsed Italy, Karl turned his journey to good account, by sell- 



When was Karl sole Emperor? What was his age, and accomplishments ? 
How did ho resemble, and differ from, Kiidolf of Hapsburg? What steps did 
he take to secure his place? What was one of his first acts? How, then, did 
he occupy himself? From what quarter came difficulties? Whom did Karl 
arrest, and when did he proceed to Eome? When, and under what circum- 
stances, was he crowned? 



1356.] THE GOLDEN BULL. 277 

ing all the remaining Imperial rights and privileges to the re- 
publics and petty rulers, for hard cash. The poet Petrarch 
had looked forward to his coming as Dante had to that of his 
grand-father, Henry VII., but satirized him bitterly when ho 
returned to Bohemia with his money. He left Italy ridiculed 
and despised, but reached Germany with greatly increased 
power. His next measure was to call a Diet, for the purpose 
of permanently settling the relation of the German princes to 
the Empire, and the forms to be observed in electing an Em- 
peror. All had learned, several centuries too late to be cf 
much service, the necessity of some established order in these 
matters, and they came to a final agreement at Metz, in Christ- 
mas Day, 1356. 

Then was promulgated the decree known as the "Golden 
Bull," which remained a law in Germany until the Empire 
came to an end, just 450 years afterwards. It commences 
with these words : "Every kingdom which is not united within 
itself will go to ruin: for its princes are the kindred of rob- 
bers, wherefore God removes the light of their minds from 
their office, they become blind leaders of the blind, and their 
darkened thoughts are the source of many misdeeds." The 
Golden Bull confirms the former custom of having seven Chief 
Electors — the Archbishops of Mayence, Treves and Cologne, 
the first of whom is Arch-Chancellor; the king of Bohemia, 
Arch-Cupbearer; the Count Palatine of the Rhine, Arch-Stew- 
ard; the Duke of Saxony, Arch-Marshal, and the Margrave 
of Brandenburg, Arch-Chamberlain. The last four princes re- 
ceive full authority over their territories, and there is no ap- 
peal, even to the Emperor, from their decisions. Their rule 
is transmitted to the eldest son ; they have the right to coin 
money, to work mines, and to impose all taxes which formerly 
belonged to the Empire. 

This is its principal feature. The claims of the Pope to 
authority over the Emperor are not mentioned; the position 



What did he do in Italy? Who satirized him, and why? What was his 
next measure? When and where was the agreement made? What was it 
called? How long was it a law? How were the Electors distinguished hy it? 
What authority did the four Temporal Electors receive? How does it treat 
the Pope? 



278 KAKL IV. IN BURGUNDY AND ITALY. [l368. 

of the other independent princes is left very much as it was, 
and the cities are prohibited from forming unions without the 
Imperial consent. The only effect of this so-called "Constitu- 
tion" was to strengthen immensely the power of the four fa- 
vored princes, and to encourage all the other rulers to imitate 
them. It introduced a certain order, and therefore was better 
than the previous absence of all law upon the subject; but it 
held the German people in a state of practical serfdom, it per- 
petuated their division, and consequent weakness, and it gave 
the spirit of the Middle Ages a longer life in Germany than 
in any other civilized country in the world. 

The remaining events of Karl IV.'s life are of no great 
historical importance. In 1363 his son, Wenzel, only two 
years old, was crowned at Prague as king of Bohemia, and 
soon afterwards, he was called upon by the Pope, Urban V., 
who found that his residence in Avignon was becoming more 
and more a state of captivity, to assist him in returning to 
Rome. In 1365, therefore, Karl set out, with a considerable 
force, entered Southern France , crowned himself king of Bur- 
gundy at Aries — which was a hollow and ridiculous farce — 
and in 1368 reached Rome, whither Pope Urban had gone in 
advance. Here his wife was formally crowned as Roman Em- 
press, and he humiliated himself by walking from the Castle 
of St. Angelo to St. Peter's, leading the Pope's mule by the 
bridle, — an act which drew upon him the contempt of the Ro- 
man people. He had few or no more privileges to sell, so he 
met every evidence of hostility with a proclamation of amnesty, 
and returned to Germany with the intention of violating his 
own Golden Bull, by having his son Wenzel proclaimed his 
successor. His departure marks the end of German inter- 
ference in Italy. 

For ten years longer Karl IV. continued to strengthen his 
family by marriage, by granting to the cities the right of 
union in return for their support, and by purchasing the in- 



The smaller princes, and cities? What was the efifect of the Golden Bull? 
What did it perpetuate in Germany? What happened, afterwards, during 
Karl IV.'a reign? What did he do in Burgundy, and when? When and how 
did he humiliate himself, in Rome? With what intention d'd he return to 
Germany? What does his departure mark? 



1376.] 



WENZEL ELECTED SUCCESSOR, 



279 



nuence of such princes as were accessible to bribes. He was 
so cool and calculating, and pursued his policy with so much 
patience and skill, that the most of his plans succeeded. His 




SHIPS OP THE HAls^SA. 



son Wenzel was elected his successor by a Diet held at Frank- 
fort in January, 1376, each of the chief Electors receiving 
100,000 florins for his vote, and this choice was confirmed by 



How did lie continue to act? 
13 



280 THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE. [l378. 

the Pope. To his second son , Sigismund , he gave Branden- 
burg, which he had obtained partly by intrigue and partly by 
purchase, and to his third son, John, the province of Lusatia, 
adjoining Silesia. His health had been gradually failing, and 
in November, 1378, he died in Prague, 63 years old, leaving 
the German Empire in a more disorderly state than he had 
found it. His tastes were always Bohemian rather than Ger- 
man: he preferred Prague to any other residence, and what- 
ever good he intentionally did was conferred on his own im- 
mediate subjects. More than a century afterwards, the Em- 
peror Maximilian of Hapsburg very justly said of him: "Karl IV. 
was a genuine father to Bohemia, but only a step-father to the 
rest of Germany." • 

During the latter years of his reign, two very different 
movements, independent of the Imperial will, or in spite of it, 
had been started in Northern and Southern Germany. In 
Wiirtemberg the cities united, and carried on a fierce war 
with Count Eberhard, surnamed the Greiner (Whiner). The 
struggle lasted for more than ten years , and out of it grew 
various leagues of the knights for the protection of their rights 
against the more powerful princes. In the North of Germany, 
the commercial cities, headed by Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen, 
formed a league which soon became celebrated under the name 
of "The Hansa," which gradually drew the cities of the Rhine 
to unite with it, and, before the end of the century, developed 
into a great commercial, naval and military power. 

The Hanseatic League had its agencies in every commercial 
city, from Novgorod in Russia to Lisbon; its vessels filled the 
Baltic and the North Sea, and almost the entire commerce of 
Northern Europe was in its hands. When, in 1361, king 
Waldemar HI. of Denmark took possession of the island of 
Gothland, which the cities had colonized, they fitted out a 
great fleet, besieged Copenhagen, finally drove Waldemar from 



When, and how, was his son Wenzel elected auccessor? What did he 
give to his other sons? When and where did he die? What were his tastes 
and acts as Emperor? What did Maximilian I. say of him? What happened 
in Southern Germany, hefore his death? How long did the struggle last, 
and what leagues grew out of it ? What happened in Northern Germany ? 
What power had the Hanseatic League ? 



1375.] THE GERMAN ORDER. 281 

his kingdom and forced the Danes to accept their conditions. 
Shortly afterwards they defeated king Hakon of Norway: their 
influence over Sweden was already secured, and thus they be- 
came an independent political power. Karl IV. visitefl Liibeck 
a few years before his death, in the hope of making himself 
head of the Hanseatic League; but the merchants were as 
good diplomatists as himself, and he obtained no recognition 
whatever. Had not the cities been so widely scattered along 
the coast, and each more or less jealous of the others, they 
might have laid the foundation of a strong North -German 
nation; but their bond of union was not firm enough for that. 

The German Order, by this time, also possessed an inde- 
pendent realm, the capital of which was established at Marien- 
burg, not far from Dantzic. The distance of the territory it 
had conquered in Eastern Prussia from the rest of the Em- 
pire, and the circumstance that it had also acknowledged itself 
a dependancy of the Papal power, enabled its Grand Masters 
to say, openly: "If the Empire claims authority over us, we 
belong to the Pope ; if the Pope claims any such authority, we 
belong to the Emperor." In fact, although the Order had 
now been established for a hundred and fifty years, it had 
never been directly assisted by the Imperial power; yet it had 
changed a great tract of wilderness, inhabited by Slavonic 
barbarians, into a rich and prosperous land, with 55 cities, 
thousands of villages, and an entire population of more than 
two millions, mostly German colonists. It adopted a fixed 
code of laws, maintained order and security throughout its 
territory, encouraged science and letters, and made the scholar 
and minstrel as welcome at its stately court in Marienburg, as 
they had been at that of Frederick II. in Palermo. 

There could be no more remarkable contrast than between 
the weakness, selfishness and despotic tendencies of the Ger- 
man Emperors and Electors during the fourteenth century, 
and tlie strong and orderly development of the Hanseatic 



When, and under what circumstances, did it defeat Denmark? How else 
did it become an independent power? What did Karl IV. attempt, and how 
did he succeed? What prevented the creation of a North-German nation? 
Wliere was the German Order established? What was its relation to the Pope 
and the Empire? What were its achievements? How did it secure order, and 
encourage learning? 



282 THE BATTLE OF SEMPACH. [l386. 

League and the German Order in the North, or of the handful 
of free Swiss in the South. 

King Wenzel (Wenczeslas in Bohemian) was only 1 7 years 
old wheit his father died, but he had been well educated and 
already possessed some experience in governing. In fact, 
Karl IV.'s anxiety to secure the succession to the throne in 
his own family led him to force WenzePs mind to a premature 
activity, and thus ruined him for life. He had enjoyed no real 
childhood and youth, and he soon became hard, cynical, wilful, 
without morality and even without ambition. In the begin- 
ning of his reign, nevertheless, he made an earnest attempt to 
heal the divisions of the Roman Church, and to establish peace 
between Count Eberhard the Whiner and the United Cities of 
Suabia. 

In the latter quarrel , Leopold of Austria also took part. 
He had been appointed Governor of several of the free cities 
by Wenzel, and he seized the occasion to attempt to restore 
the authority of the Hapsburgs over the Swiss Cantons. The 
latter now numbered eight, the three original cantons having 
been joined by Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug and Berne. They 
had been invited to make common cause with the Suabian 
cities, more than fifty of which were united in the struggle to 
maintain their rights; but the Swiss, although in sympathy with 
the cities, declined to march beyond their own territory. 
Leopold decided to subjugate each, separately. In 1386, with 
an army of 4000 Austrian and Suabian knights, he invaded 
the Cantons. The Swiss collected 1300 farmers, fishers and 
herdsmen, armed with halberds and battle-axes, and met 
Leopold at Sempach, on the 9th of July. 

The 4000 knights dismounted, and advanced in. close ranks, 
presenting a wall of steel, defended by rows of levelled spears, 
to the Swiss in their leathern jackets. It seemed impossible 



"What contrast is exhibited by these events? How old was "Wenzel, and 
what was his nature? How had his education been damaged? How did ho 
change in character? What did lie attempt, at first? What was the course 
of Leopold of Austria? What were now the Swiss Cantons? What was their 
course towards the Suabian Cities ? When, and with wliat force, did Leopold 
invade Switzerland? What was the Swiss force? When and where did they 
meet? 



1386.] 



ARNOLD OF WINKELRIED. 



283 



to break their solid 
front, or even to reach 
them with the Swiss 
weapons. Then Ar- 
nold of Winkelried 
stepped forth and said 
to his countrymen : 
"Dear brothers, I will 
open a road for you: 
take care of my wife 
and children!" He 
gathered together as 
many spears as he could 
grasp with both arms, 
and threw himself for- 
ward upon them: the 
Swi.^s sprang into the 
gap, and the knights 
began to fall on all 
sides from their tre- 
mendous blows. Many 
were smothered in 
the press , trampled 
under foot in their 
heavy armor : Duke 
Leopold and nearly 
700 of his followers 
perished, and the rest 
were scattered in all 
directions. It was one 
of the most aston- 
ishing victories in 
history. Two years 
afterwards the Swiss 

were again splendidly victorious at Nafels, and from that time 
they were an independent nation. 




A KNIGHT OF THE 14tH CENTUKY. 



How was the Austrian army drawn up? What did Arnold of Winkelried 
do, and say? What was the result of the battle? What other victory made 
the Swiss independent? 



2S4 wenzel's barbakity. [1390. 

The Saabian cities were so encouraged by these defeats of 
the party of the nobles, that in 1388 they united in a common 
war against the Duke of Bavaria, Count Eberhard of Wiirtem- 
berg and the Count Palatine Rupert. After a short but very 
fierce and Wasting struggle, they were defeated at Doffingen 
and Worms, deprived of the privileges for which they had 
fought, and compelled to accept a truce of six years. In 1389, 
a Diet was held, which prohibited them from forming any 
further union, and thus completely reestablished the power of 
the reigning princes. Wenzel endeavored to enforce an inter- 
nal peace throughout the whole Empire, but could not suc- 
ceed, what was law for the cities was not allowed to be equally 
law for the princes. It seems probable, from many features 
of the struggle, that the former designed imitating the Swiss 
cantons, and founding a Suabian republic, if they had been 
successful; but the entire governing class of Germany, from 
the Emperor down to the knightly highwayman, was against 
them, and they must have been crushed in any case, sooner 
or later. 

For eight or nine years after these events, Wenzel re- 
mained in Prague where his reign was distinguished only by an 
almost insane barbarity. He always had an executioner at 
his right hand, and whoever refused to submit to his orders 
was instantly beheaded. He kept a pack of bloodhounds, 
which were sometimes let loose even upon his own guests : on 
one occasion his wife, the Empress Elizabeth, was nearly torn 
to pieces by them. He ordered the confessor of the latter, a 
priest named John of Nepomuck, to be thrown into the Moldau 
river for refusing to tell him what the Empress had confessed. 
By this act he made John of Nepomuck the patron saint of 
Bohemia. Some one once wrote upon the door of his palace 
the words: '^Venccslaus, alter Nero'' (Wenzel, a second Nero); 
whereupon he wrote the line below: "Si' nonfui adJmc, era'' 
(If I have not been one hitherto , I will be now). When the 



How, and when, did the Suabian cities act? "What was their fate? What 
did the Diet order? What did Wenzel attempt, and with wliat success? What 
was the probable intention of the Suabian cities? Where did Wenzel remain, 
after this, and what was his reign? What barbarities did he commit? How 
did he treat John of Nepomuck? Describe the anecdote of the writing on his 
door 



1398.J QUARREL WITH THE POPE. 285 

city of Rothenburg refused to advance him 4000 florins, he 
sent this message to the authorities: *'The devil began to shear 
a hog, and spake thus, *Great cry and little wool' !" 

In short, Wenzel was so little of an Emperor and so much 
of a brutal madman, that a conspiracy at the head of which 
were his cousin, Jodocus of Moravia and Duke Albert of Austria, 
was formed against him. He was taken prisoner and conveyed 
to Austria, where he was held in close confinement until his 
brother Sigismund, aided by a Diet of the other German prin- 
ces, procured his release. In return for this service, and prob- 
ably, also, to save himself the trouble of governing, he ap- 
pointed Sigismund Vicar of the Empire. In 1398 he called 
a Diet at Frankfort, and again endeavored, but without much 
success, to enforce a general peace. The schism in the Roman 
Church, which lasted for 40 years, the rival popes in Rome and 
Avignon cursing and making war upon each other, had at this 
time become a scandal to Christendom, and the Papal authority 
had sunk so low that the temporal rulers now ventured to 
interfere. Wenzel went to Rheims, where he had an interview 
with Charles VL of France, in order to settle the quarrel. It 
was agreed that the former should compel Bonifacius IX. in 
Rome, and the latter Benedict XIII. in Avignon, to abdicate, 
so that the Church might have an opportunity to unite on a 
single Pope; but neither monarch succeeded in carrying out 
the plan. 

On the contrary, Bonifacius IX. went secretly to work to 
depose Wenzel. He gained the support of the four Electors 
of the Rhine, who, headed by the Archbishop of Mayence, came 
together in 1400, proclaimed that Wenzel had forfeited his 
Imperial dignity, and elected the Count Palatine Rupert, a 
member of the house of Wittelsbach (Bavaria) in his place. 
The city of Aix-ia-Chapelle shut its gates upon the latter, and 
he was crowned in Cologne. A majority of the smaller German 
princes, as well as of the free cities, refused to acknowledge 
him; but, on the other hand, none of them made any movement 



What was his answer to Rothenburg? What conspiracy was formed, and 
what happened? What was the state of the Roman Chuch? With whom 
had Wenzel an interview, and what was arrancjed? What was done, at the 
instigation of Pope Bonifacius? Where was Rupert crowned, and why? 



286 THE LEAGUE OF MARBACH. [1405. 

m Wenzel's favor, and so there were, practically, two separate 
heads to the Empire. 

Kupert imagined that his coronation in Rome would secure 
his authority in Germany. He therefore collected an army, 
entered into an alliance with the republic of Florence against 
Milan, and marched to Italy in 1401. Near Brescia he met 
the army of the Lombards, commanded by the Milanese ge- 
neral, Barbiano, and was so signally defeated that he was com- 
pelled to return to Germany. In the meantime Wenzel had 
come to a temporary understanding with Jodocus of Moravia 
and the Hapsburg Dukes of Austria, and his prospects im- 
proved as Rupert's diminished. It was not long, however, 
before he quarrelled with his brother Sigismund, and was im- 
prisoned by the latter. Then ensued a state of general con- 
fusion, the cause of which is easy to understand, but the fea- 
tures of which it is not easy to make clear. 

A number of reigning princes and cities held a convention 
at Marbach in 1405, and formed a temporary union, the object 
of which was evidently to create a third power in the Empire. 
Both Rupert and Wenzel at first endeavored to break up this 
new league, and then, failing in the attempt, both intrigued 
for its support. The Archbishop of Mayence and the Margrave 
of Baden, who stood at its head, were secretly allied with 
France ; the smaller princes were ambitious to gain for them- 
selves a power equal to that of the seven Electors, and the 
cities hoped to recover some of their lost rights. The League 
of Marbach, as it is called in history, had as little unity or 
harmony as the Empire itself. All Germany was given up to 
anarchy, and seemed on the point of falling to pieces: so much 
had the famous Golden Bull of Karl IV. accomplished in fifty 
years ! 

On the eastern shore of the Baltic, also, the march of Ger- 
man civilization received an almost fatal check. The two 



What part did the German princes take? When and why did Kiipert march 
to Italy? What happened to him there? How did Wenzel's prospects im- 
prove? What changes followed? What convention was held, wlien, and for 
what purpose? What did Wenzel and Rupert try to do? What was the 
course of the other princes? What was the league called , and what was its 
character? Where was the growth of Germany checked? 



1410 1 THE ANTI-EMPEROR, RUPERT. 287 

strongest neighbors of the German Order, the Poles and 
Lithuanians, were now united under one crown, and they 
defeated the army of the Order, 60,000 strong, under the 
walls of Wilna, in 1389. After an unsatisfactory peace of 
some years , hostilities were again resumed, and both sides 
prepared for a desperate and final struggle. Each raised 
an army of more than 100,000 men, among whom, on 
the Polish side, there were 40,000 Russians and Tartars. 
The decisive battle was fought at Tannenberg, in July, 1410, 
and the German Order, after losing 40,000 men, retreated 
from the field. It was compelled to give up a portion of its 
territory to Poland, and pay a heavy tribute: from that day 
its power was broken, and the Slavonic races encroached more 
and more upon the Germans, along the Baltic. 

During this same period Holland was rapidly becoming 
estranged from the German Empire, and France had obtained 
possession of the greater part of Flanders. Luxemburg and 
part of Lorraine were incorporated with Burgundy, which was 
rising in power and importance, and had become practically 
independent of Germ|iny. There was now no one to guard 
the ancient boundaries, and probably nothing but the war be- 
tween England and France prevented the latter kingdom from 
greatly increasing her territory at the expense of the Empire. 

Although Rupert of the Palatinate acquired but a limited 
authority in Southern Germany, he is generally classed among 
the German Emperors, perhaps because Wenzel's power, after 
the year 1400, was no greater than his own. The confusion 
and uncertainty in regard to the Imperial dignity lasted until 
1410, when Rupert determined to make war upon the Arch- 
bishoip of Mayence — who had procured his election, and since 
the League of Marbach was his chief enemy — as the first step 
towards establishing his authority. In the midst of his pre- 
parations he died, on the 18th of May, 1410. 



When, where and by whom was the German Order defeated? What forces 
were raised, on both sides? Where was the decisive battle, and what was its 
result ? What were the losses of the Order? What was taking place in Hol- 
land and France? What was the position of Burgundy? What prevented 
France from gaining greater advantages? Where is Rupert classed, and why? 
How long did the confusion last? What did Rupert then decide? When, and 
how, did the rivalry end? 



238 THREE EMPEEOES AND THEEE POPES. [l410. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

THE REIGN OF SIGISMUND AND THE HUSSITE WAR. 

(1410—1437.) 

Three Emperors in Germany and Three Popes in Eome. — Sigismund Sole 
Emperor. — His Appearance and Character. — Religious Movements in Bo- 
hemia. — John Huss and his Doctrines. — Division of the University of 
Prague. — A Council of the Church called at Constance. — Grand Assemhly 
of all Nations. — Organization of the Council. — Flight and Capture of 
Pope John XXIII.— Treatment of Huss. — His Trial and Execution.— Je- 
rome of Prague Burned.— Religious Revolt in Bohemia. — Frederick of 
Hohenzollern Receives Brandenburg. — The Bohemians rise, under Ziska. 
— Their two Parties. — Ziska's Character. — The Bohemian Demands. — Ziska's 
Victories. — Negotiations with Lithuania and Poland. — Ziska's Death. — 
Victories of Procopius.— Hussite Invasions of Germany. — The Fifth "Cru- 
sade" against Bohemia. — The Hussiteg Triumphant. — The Council of Basel. 
— Peace made with the Hussites. — Their Internal Wars. — Revolt against 
Sigismund. — His Death. 

In 1410, the year of Rupert's death, Europe was edified by 
the spectacle of three Emperors in Germany, and three Popes 
of the Church of Rome, all claiming to rule at the same time. 
The Diet was divided between Sigismund and Jodocus of Mo- 
ravia, both of whom were declared elected, while Wenzel in- 
sisted that he was still Emperor. A Council held at Pisa, 
about the same time, deposed Pope Gregory XIL in Rome and 
Pope Benedict XIII. in Avignon, and elected a third, who took 
the name of Alexander V. But neither of the former obeyed 
the decrees of the Council: Gregory XII. betook himself to 
Rimini, Alexander, soon succeeded by John XXIII., reigned in 
Rome, and the three spiritual rivals began a renewed jvar of 
proclamations and curses. In order to obtain money, they 
sold priestly appointments to the highest bidder, carried on a 
trade in pardons and indulgences, and brought such disgrace 
on the priestly office and the Christian name, that the spirit 
of the so-called '^hereticar' sects, though trampled down in 
fire and blood, was kept everywhere alive among the people. 



What happened in the year of Rupert's death? Who were the three Im- 
perial claimants? Who were the three Popes, and how did they act? What 
course did they take, to obtain money? 



1411.] 



THE EMPEKOR SIGISMUND. 



289 



The political rivalry in Germany did not last long. Jodocus 
of Moravia, of whom an old historian says: *'He was considered 
a great man, but there was nothing great about him, excej^t 
his beard," died soon 
after his partial 
election, Wenzel was 
persuaded to give up 
liis opposition, and 
Sigismund was gene- 
rally recognized as the 
sole Emperor. In ad- 
dition to the Mark 
ofBrandenburg,which 
he had received from 
his father, Karl IV., 
he had obtained the 
crown of Hungary 
through his wife, and 
claimed also the king- 
doms of Bosnia and 
Dalmatia. He had 
fought the Turks on 
the lower Danube, 
had visited Constan- 
tinople, and was al- 
ready distinguished 
for his courage and 
knightly bearing. Un- 
like his brother Wen- 
zel, who had the black 
hair and high cheek- 
bones of a Bohemian, 
^le was blond-haired, 
blue-eyed and strikingly handsome. He spoke several languages, 
was witty in speech, cheerful in demeanor, and popular with 
all classes, but, unfortunately, both fickle and profligate. 




SIGISMUND. 



What was the end of the political rivalry in Gerrnany? 
mund's possessions ? How had he distinguished himself? 



What were Sigis- 



290 JOHN HUSS IN BOHEMIA. [l400. 

Moreover, he was one of the vainest men that ever wore 
a crown. 

Before Sigismiind entered upon his reign, the depraved con- 
dition of the Koman clergy, resulting from the general demo- 
ralization of the Church, had given rise to a new und powerful 
religious movement in Bohemia. As early as 1360, independent 
preachers had arisen among the people there, advocating the 
pure truths of the Gospel, and exhorting their hearers to turn 
their backs on the pride and luxury which prevailed , to live 
simply and righteously, and do good to their fellow-men. Al- 
though persecuted by the priests, they found many followers, 
and their example soon began to be more widely felt, especially 
as Wickliffe, in England, was preaching a similar doctrine at 
the same time. The latter's translation of the Bible was 
finished in 1383, and portions of it, together with his other 
writings in favor of a Reformation of the Christian Church, 
were carried to Prague soon afterwards. 

The great leader of the movement in Bohemia was John 
Huss, who was born in 1369, studied at the University of 
Prague, became a teacher there, and at the same time a de- 
fender of Wickliffe's doctrines, in 1398, and four years after- 
wards, in spite of the fierce opposition of the clergy, was made 
Rector of the University. With him was associated Jerome 
(Hieronymus), a young Bohemian nobleman, who had studied 
at Oxford, and was also inspired by Wickliffe's writings. The 
learning and lofty personal character, of both gave them an 
influence in Prague, which gradually extended over all Bohe- 
mia. Huss preached with the greatest earnestness and eloquence 
against the Roman doctrine of absolution, the worship of saints 
and images, the Papal trade in offices and indulgences, and the 
idea of a purgatory from which souls could be freed by masses 
celebrated on their behalf. He advocated a return to the sim- 
plicity of the early Christian Church , especially in the use of 



What were his appearance, accompliBhments and weaknesses? What new 
movement Iiad arisen? How occasioned? When did it commence? What did 
tlie preachers advocate? What increased their influence? What writings were 
brought from England to Bohemia? Who was the leader of the movement, 
and what was his history? Who was associated with him? What influence 
had they? What did Huss preach against? 



1409.] THE REFOKMATION IN PRAGUE. 291 

the sacrament (communion). The Popes had changed the form 
of administering the sacrament, giving only bread to the lay- 
men, while the priests partook of both bread and wine : Huss, 
and the sect which took his name, demanded that it should be 
administered to all *4n both forms." Thus the cup or sacra- 
mental chalice, became the symbol of the latter, in the struggle 
which followed. 

The first consequence of the preaching of Huss was a di- 
vision between the Bohemians and Germans, in the University 
of Prague. The Germans took the part of Rome, but the Bo- 
hemians secured the support of kingWenzel through his queen, 
who was a follower of Huss, and maintained their ascendency. 
Thereupon the German professors and students, numbering 
5,000, left Prague in a body, in 1409, and migrated to Leipzig, 
where they founded a new University. These matters were 
reported to the Roman Pope, who immediately excommunicated 
Huss and his followers. Soon afterwards, the Pope (JolmXXHI.), 
desiring to subdue the king of Naples, offered pardons and in- 
dulgences for crimes to all who would take up arms on his 
side. Huss and Jerome preached against this as an abomination, 
and the latter publicly burned the Pope's bull in the streets of 
Prague. The conflict now became so fierce that Wenzel 
banished both from the city, many of Huss's friends among 
the clergy fell away from him, and he offered to submit his doc- 
trines to a general Council of the Church. 

Such a Council, in fact, was then demanded by all Christen- 
dom. The intelligent classes in all countries felt that the de- 
moralization caused by the corruption of the clergy and the 
scandalous quarrels of three rival Popes could no longer be 
endured. The Council at Pisa, in 1409, had only made matters 
worse by adding another Pope to the two at Rome and Avig- 
non; for, although it claimed the highest spiritual authority on 
earth, it was not obeyed. The Chancellor of the University of 



What did he advocate? How did the Popes order the sacrament to he 
administered? What did Huss demand? What became the symbol of his 
party? What was the first consequence of his preaching? How were the 
parties divided, and which was successful? Wliat did the Germans then do? 
What course did the Pope take? What further act did Huss and Jerome 
oppose? What was the consequence? What was demanded by Christendom, 
and why? W^hat had the Council of Pisa done? 



292 THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. [UU. 

Paris called upon the Emperor Sigismund to move in favor of 
a new Council; all the Christian powers of Europe promised 
their support, and finally one of the Popes, John XXIII., being 
driven from Rome, was persuaded to agree, so that a grand 
Ecumenical Council, with authority over the Papacy, was 
summoned to meet in the city of Constance, in the autumn of 
the year 1414. 

It was one of the most imposing assemblies ever held in 
Europe. Pope John XXIII. personally appeared, accompanied 
by 600 Italians ; the other two Popes sent ambassadors to re- 
present their interests. The patriachs of Jerusalem, Constan- 
tinople and Aquileia, the Grand -Masters of the knightly Or- 
ders, 33 Cardinals, 20 Archbishops, 200 Bishops and many 
thousand priests and monks, were present. Then came the 
Emperor Sigismund, the representatives of all Christian powers, 
including the Byzantine Emperor, and even an envoy from 
the Turkish Sultan, with 1600 princes and their followers. 
The entire concourse of strangers at Constance was computed 
at 150,000, and thirty different languages were heard at the 
same time. A writer of the day thus describes the charac- 
teristics of the four principal races : ''The Germans are impe- 
tuous, but have much endurance, the French are boastful and 
arrogant, the English prompt and sagacious, and the Italians 
subtle and intriguing." Gamblers, mountebanks and dramatic 
performers were also on hand; great tournaments, races and 
banquets were constantly held; yet, although the Council 
lasted four years, there was no disturbance of the public order, 
no increase in the cost of living, and no epidemic diseases in 
the crowded camps. 

The professed objects of the Council were : a reformation 
of the Church, its reorganization under a single head, and the 
suppression of heresy. The members were divided into four 
^'Nations" — the German, including the Bohemians, Hungarians, 



Who demanded a new Council, by -whom was it called, when and where? 
What was its character? How were the Popes represented? Mention some 
of the other personages who came. What was the number of persons, and 
languages spoken? How were the principal races described? What other 
cliaracters came? What were the remarkable features of the assembly ? Wliat 
was the profess-ed object of the Council? 



141 5. J ELECTION OF A NEW POPE. 293 

Poles, Russians and Greeks; the French, including Normans, 
Spaniards and Portuguese; the English, including Irish, Scotch, 
Danes, Norwegians and Swedes; and the Italians, embracing 
all the different States, from the Alps to Sicily. Each of these 
nations held its own separate convention, and cast a single 
vote, so that no measure could be carried, unless three of the 
four nations were in favor of it. Germany and England 
advocated the reformation of the Church, as the first and most 
important question; France and Italy cared only to have the 
quarrel of the Popes settled, and finally persuaded England 
to join them. Thus the reformation was postponed , and that 
was, practically, the end of it. 

As soon as it became evident that all three of the Popes 
would be deposed by the Council, John XXIII. fled from Con- 
stance in disguise, with the assistance of the Hapsburg Duke, 
Frederick of Austria. Both were captured; the Pope, whose 
immorality had already made him infamous, was imprisoned 
at Heidelberg, and Frederick was declared to have forfeited 
his lands. Although Austria was afterwards restored to him, 
all the Hapsburg territory lying between Zurich, the Rhine 
and the Lake of Constance was given to Switzerland, and has 
remained Swiss ever since. A second Pope, Gregory XII., now 
voluntarily abdicated, but the third, Benedict XIII., refused 
to follow the example, and maintained a sort of Papal au- 
thority in Spain until his death. The Council elected a 
member of the family of Colonna, in Rome, who took the 
name of Martin V. He was no sooner chosen and installed in 
his office than, without awaiting the decrees of the Council, 
he began to conclude separate "Concordats" (agreements) with 
the princes. Thus the chief object of the Council was already 
thwarted, and the four nations took up the question of sup- 
pressing heresy. 

Huss, to whom the Emperor had sent a safe-conduct for 
the journey to and from Constance, and was escorted by three 



In what manner was it divided into "^Nations''? How did these vote? 
What did Germany and England advocate, and how was it prevented? "What 
was Pope John XXIII.'s course? What was done with him and Frederick of 
Austria? What territory did Switzerland gain? How did the other Popes 
act? Who was elected? What was Martin V.'s first course? What question 
was then taken up ? 



294 CONDEMNATION OF HUSS. [l415. 

Bohemian kniglits, was favorably received by the people, on 
the way. He reached Constance in November, 1414, and was 
soon afterwards — before any examination — arrested and 
thrown into a dungeon so foul that he became seriously ill. 
Sigismund insisted that he should be released, but the car- 
dinals and bishops were so embittered against him that they 
defied the Emperor's authority. All that the latter could (or 
did) do for him , was to procure for him a trial , which began 
on the 7th of June, 1415. But instead of a trial, it was a sa- 
vage farce. He was accused of the absurdest doctrines, among 
others of asserting that there were four Gods, and every time 
he attempted to speak in his own defence, his voice was drowned 
by the outcries of the bishops and priests. He offered to re- 
nounce any doctrine he had taught, if it were proved contrary 
to the Gospel of Christ ; but this proposition was received with 
derision. He was simply offered the choice between instantly 
denying all that he held as truth or being burned at the stake 
as a heretic. 

On the Gth of July, the Council assembled in the Cathe- 
dral of Constance. After mass had been celebrated, Huss, who 
had steadfastly refused to recant, was led before the congrega- 
tion of priests and princes, and clothed as a priest, to make 
his condemnation more solemn. A bishop read the charges 
against him, but every attempt he made to speak was forcibly 
silenced. Once, however, he raised his voice and demanded 
the fair hearing which had been promised, and to obtain which 
he had accepted the Emperor's protection, — fixing his eyes 
sternly upon Sigismund, who could not help blushing with 
shame. The sacramental cup was then placed in Huss's hands, 
and immediately snatched from him with the words: "Thou 
accursed Judas ! we take from thee this cup, wherein the blood 
of Christ is offered up for the forgiveness of sins !" to which 
Huss replied: "I trust that to-day I shall drink of this cup 



How waa Huss brought to Constance? How was he treated after his ar- 
rival? What did Sigismund demand, and wlio prevented it? When did Huss's 
trial commence, and what was it? Of what was he accused, and how treated ? 
What offer ditl he make? What elioicc was given him? When, and in what 
manner, was he condemned? What occurred between him and Sigismund? 
Belate the incident of the cup. 



1415 16.] HUSS AND JEROME BURNED. 295 

in the Kingdom of God." Each article of his priestly dress 
was stripped from him with a new curse, and when, finally, 
all had been removed, his soul was solemnly commended to 
the Devil; whereupon he exclaimed: "And I commend it to 
my Lord Jesus Christ." 

Huss was publicly burned to death the same day. On ar- 
riving at the stake he knelt and prayed so fervently, that the 
common people began to ^oubt whether he really was a 
heretic. Being again offered a chance to retract, he declared 
in a loud voice that he would seal by his death the truth of 
all he had taught. After the torch had been applied to the 
pile, he was heard to cry out, three times, from the midst of 
the flames: *' Jesus Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy 
upon me !" Then his voice failed, and in a short time nothing 
was left of the body of the immortal martyr, except a handful 
of ashes which were thrown into the Rhine. 

Huss's friend, Jerome, who came to Constance on the ex- 
press promise of the Council that he should not be imprisoned 
before a fair hearing, was thrown into a dungeon as soon as 
he arrived, and so broken down by sickness and cruelty that 
in September, 1415, he promised to give up his doctrines. 
But he soon recovered from this weakness, declared anew the 
truth of all he had taught , and defended himself before the 
Council in a speech of remarkable power and eloquence. He 
was condemned, and burned at the stake on the 30th of May, 
1416. 

The fate of Huss and Jerome created an instant and fierce 
excitement among the Bohemians. An address, defending them 
against the charge of heresy and protesting against the in- 
justice and barbarity of the Council, was signed by four or 
five hundred nobles, and forwarded to Constance. The only 
result was that the Council decreed that no safe-conduct could 
be allowed to protect a heretic, that the University of Prague 
must be reorganized, and the strongest measures applied to 
suppress the Hussite doctrines in Bohemia. This was a de- 



How was he finally cursed? What happened at the stake? What declara- 
tion did Huss make? How did he finally die? How was Jerome treated, and 
what did he do? What was his end? What was the effect of these execu- 
tions? What address was sent to the Council, and by whom? What did the 
Council decree, in answer? 



296 FEEDERICK OF HOHENZOLLERN. [i415. 

fiance which the Bohemians courageously accepted. Men of 
all classes united in proclaiming that the doctrines of Huss 
should be freely taught and that no Inderdict of the Church 
should be enforced: the University, and even Wenzel's queen, 
Sophia, favored this movement, which soon became so power- 
ful that all priests who refused to administer the sacrament 
"in both forms" were driven from their churches. 

The Council sat at Constance until May, 1418, when it 
was dissolved by Pope Martin V. without having accomplished 
anything whatever tending to a permanent reformation of 
the Church. The only political event of importance during 
this time was a business transaction of Sigismund's, the re- 
sults of which , reaching to our day , have decided the fate of 
Germany. In 1411 , the Emperor was in great need of ready 
mony, and borrowed 100,000 florins of Frederick of Hohen- 
zollern, the Burgrave {Burggraf^ ''Count of the Castle") of 
Nuremberg, a direct descendant of the Hohenzollern who had 
helped Rudolf of Hapsburg to the Imperial crown. Sigismund 
gave his creditor a mortgage on the territory of Brandenburg, 
which had fallen into a state of great disorder. Frederick at 
once removed thither, and, in his own private interests, under- 
took to govern the country. He showed so much ability , and 
was so successful in quelling the robber-knights and establish- 
ing order, that in 1415 Sigismund oflered to sell him the so- 
vereignty of Brandenburg (which made him, at the same time, 
an Elector of the Empire), for the additional sum of 300,000 
gold florins. Frederick accepted the terms, and settled per- 
manently in the little State which afterwards became Prussia, 
of which his own lineal descendants are now the rulers. 

When the Council of Constance was dissolved, Sigismund 
hastened to Hungary to carry on a new war with the Turks, 
who were already extending their conquests along the Danube. 
The Hussites in Bohemia employed this opportunity to or- 
ganize themselves for resistance; 40,000 of them, in July, 



How did the Bohemians meet this action ? How was their resistance mani- 
fosted? When wars the Council dissolved? What business transaction did 
Sigismund make? Who was Frederick of Hohenzollern? How did Frederick 
eucceed in Brandenburg? What terms were made? Of what nation was this 
the beginning? What was Sigismund's next measure? 



1419.] ZISKA HEADS THE BOHEMIANS. 297 

1419, assembled on a mountain to which they gave the name 
of "Tabor," and chose as their leader a nobleman who was 
surnamed Ziska, "the one-eyed." The excitement soon rose 
to such a pitch that several monasteries were stormed and 
plundered. King Wenzel arrested some of the ringleaders, 
but this only inflamed the spirit of the people. They formed 
a procession in Prague, marched through the city, carrying the 
sacramental cup at their head, and took forcible possession of 
several churches. When they halted before the city-hall, to 
demand the release of their imprisoned brethren , stones were 
thrown at them from the windows, whereupon they broke into 
the building and hurled the Burgomaster and six other offi- 
cials upon the upheld spears of those below. The news of this 
event so exited Wenzel that he was stricken with apoplexy, 
and died two weeks afterwards. 

The Hussites were already divided into two parties, one 
moderate in its demands, called the "Calixtines," from the 
Latin cah'x , a chalice, which was their symbol, the other ra- 
dical and fanatic, called the "Taborites," who proclaimed their 
separation from the Church of Eome and a new system of 
brotherly equality through which they expected to establish 
the Millenium upon earth. The exigencies of their situation 
obliged these two parties to unite in common defence against 
the forces of the Church and the Empire, during the sixteen 
years of war which followed; but they always remained sepa- 
rated in their religious views, and mutually intolerant. Ziska, 
who called himself "John Ziska of the Chalice, commander in 
the hope of God of the Taborites," had been a friend and was 
an ardent follower of Huss. He was an old man, bald-headed, 
short, broad-shouldered, with a deep furrow across his brow, 
an enormous aquiline nose, and a short red moustache. In 
his genius for military operations, he ranks among the great 
commanders of the world : his quickness, energy and inventive 



How and when did the Hussites organize? Who was their leader? What 
followed? Describe the occurrence in Prague? How did this affect the Ex- 
Emperor Wenzel? Into what parties were the Hussites divided? What was 
their character? Why did they unite, how long, and how did they remain 
separated? Who was Ziska? What was his personal appearance? 



298 DEFEAT OF THE CRUSAJDE AGAINST BOHEMIA. [1420 

talent were marvellous, but at the same time he knew neither 
tolerance nor mercy. 

Ziska's first policy was to arm the Bohemians. He intro- 
duced among them the ''thunder-guns" — small field-pieces, 
which had been first used at the battle of Agincourt , between 
England and France, three years before; he shod the farmers' 
flails with iron, and taught them to crack helmets and armor 
with iron maces; and he invented a system of constructing 
temporary fortresses by binding strong wagons together with 
iron chains. Sigismund does not seem to have been aware of 
the formidable character of the movement, until the end of his 
war with the Turks, some months afterwards, and he then per- 
suaded the Pope to summon all Christendom to a crusade 
against Bohemia. During the year 1420 a force of 100,000 
soldiers was collected, and Sigismund marched at their head 
to Praime. The Hussites met him with the demand for the 
acceptance of the following articles: 1. — The word of God to 
be freely preached ; 2. — The sacrament to be administered in 
both forms ; 3. — The clergy to possess no property or tem- 
poral authority; 4. — xiU sins to be punished by the proper 
authorities. Sigismund was ready to accept these articles as 
the price of their submission, but the Papal Legate forbade 
the agreement, and war followed. 

On the 1st of November, 1420, the ''Crusaders" were to- 
tally defeated by Ziska , and all Bohemia was soon relieved of 
their presence. The dispute between the moderates and the 
radicals broke out again; the idea of a community of pro- 
perty began to prevail among the Taborites, and most of the 
Bohemian nobles refused to act with them. Ziska left Prague 
with his troops and for a time devoted himself to the task of 
suppressing all opposition through the country, with fire and 
sword. He burned no less than 550 convents and monasteries, 
slaying the priests and monks who refused to accept the new 
doctrines ; but he proceeded with equal severity against a new 



"What were his abilities? How did he first arm and organize the Hussites? 
^hat measure did Sigismund adopt against them? What force was collected, 
and when? What did the Hussites demand? Who prevented an agreement? 
How and when was the invasion terminated? What dispute arose, and what 
were its consequences? 



1420.] 



ZISKA'S RAVAGES. 



299 



sect called the Adamites, who were endeavoring to restore 
Paradise by living without clothes. While besieging the town 




± WAGON-FOKT OF THE HUSSITES. 



of Raby, an arrow destroyed his remaining eye, yet he con- 
tinued to plan battles and sieges as before. The very name 
of the blind warrior became a terror throughout Germany. 



What did Ziska do, on his march through Bohemia? What happened to him? 



300 DEFEAT OF THE SECOND CRUSADE. [l42?. 

In September, 1421, a second Crusade of 200,000 men, 
commanded by five German Electors, entered Bohemia from 
the west. It had been planned that the Emperor Sigismund, 
assisted by Duke Albert of Austria, to whom he had given his 
daughter in marriage, and who was now also supported by 
many of the Bohemian nobles, should invade the country from 
the east, at exactly the same time. The Hussites were thus 
to be crushed between the upper and the nether millstones, 
But the blind Ziska, nothing daunted, led his wagons, his flail- 
men and mace-wielders against the Electors, whose troops be- 
gan to fly before them. No battle was fought; the 200,000 
Crusaders were scattered in all directions, and lost heavily 
during their retreat. Then Ziska wheeled about and marched 
against Sigismund , who was late in making his appearance. 
The two armies met on the 8th of January, 1422, and the 
Hussite victory was so complete that the Emperor narrowly 
escaped falling into their hands. It is hardly to be wondered 
that they shoul^ consider themselves to be the chosen people 
of God, after such astonishing successes. 

At this juncture, Prince Witold of Lithuania, supported 
by king Jagello of Poland, offered to accept the four articles 
of the Hussites, provided they would give him the crown of 
Bohemia. The Moderates were all in his favor, and even Ziska 
left the Taborites when, true to their republican principles, 
they refused to accept Witold's proposition. The separation 
between the two parties of the Hussites was now complete. 
Witold sent his nephew Koribut, who swore to maintain 
the four articles, and was installed at Prague, as "Vicegerent 
of Bohemia." Thereupon Sigismund made such representations 
to king Jagello of Poland , that Koribut was soon recalled by 
his uncle. About the same time a third Crusade was arranged, 
and Frederick of Brandenburg (the Hohenzollern) selected to 
command it, but the plan failed from lack of support. The 
dissensions among the Hussites became fiercer than ever; 



When was the Second Crusade, and how strong? "What was Sigismund's 
plan, to support it? In what manner was Ziska victorious? What was the 
result of his march against Sigismund? What did the Hussites consider 
themselves? What offer was made to the Hussites, and hy whom? What 
separation followed? How was the new arrangement hroken up? What was 
the luck of the third Crusade? 



1426.] THE HUSSITES INVADE GEEMANY. 301 

Ziska was at one time on the point of attacking Pi ague , but 
the leaders of the moderate party succeeded in coming to an 
understanding with him , and he entered the city in triumph. 
In October, 1424, while marching against Duke Albert of 
Austria, who had invaded Moravia, he fell a victim to the pla- 
gue. Even after death he continued to terrify the German 
soldiers, who beheved that his skin had been made into a 
drum, and still called the Hussites to battle. 

A majority of the Taborites elected a priest, called Pro- 
copius the Great, as their commander in Ziska's stead; the 
others, who thenceforth styled themselves ^'Orphans," united 
under another priest, Procopius the Little. The approach of 
another Imperial army, in 142G, compelled them to forget 
their differences, and the result was a splendid victory over 
their enemies. Procopius the Great then invaded Austria 
and Silesia, which he laid waste without mercy. The Pope 
called Q, fourth Crusade, which met the same fate as the for- 
mer ones: the united armies of the Archbishop of Treves, the 
Elector Frederick of Brandenburg and the Duke of Saxony, 
200,000 strong, were utterly defeated, and fled in disorder, 
leaving an enormous quantity of stores and munitions of war 
in the hands of the Bohemians. 

Procopius, who was almost the equal of Ziska as a mili- 
tary leader, made several unsuccessful attempts to unite the 
Hussites in one religious body. In order to prevent their dis- 
sensions from becoming dangerous to the common cause, he 
kept the soldiers of all sects under his command, and under- 
took fierce invasions into Bavaria, Saxony and Brandenburg, 
which made the Hussite name a terror to all Germany. During 
these expeditions one hundred towns were destroyed, more 
than fifteen hundred villages burned , tens of thousands of the 
inhabitants slain, and such quantities of plunder collected that 
it was impossible to transport the whole of it to Bohemia. 
Frederick of Brandenburg and several other princes were com- 



What was the result of the dissensions among the Hussites? When and 
how did Ziska die? What story was spread? What leaders were chosen in 
his stead? When were they victorious? What did Procopius the Great then 
do? Describe the Fourth Crusade. What did Procopius attempt? How did 
he keep up his military strength? What did he achieve, in his invasions? 



302 DEFEAT OF THE FIFTH CRUSADE. [l431. 

pelled to pay lieavy tributes to the Hussites: the Empire was 
thoroughly humiliated, the people weary of slaughter, yet the 
Pope refused even to call a Council for the discussion of the 
difficulty. 

As for the Emperor Sigismund, he had grown tired of the 
quarrel, long before. Leaving the other German States to 
fight Bohemia, he withdrew to Hungary and for some years 
found enough to do , in repelling the inroads of the Turks. 
It was not until the beginning of the year 1431, when there 
was peace along the Danube, that he took any measures for 
putting an end to the Hussite war. Pope Martin V. was dead, 
and his successor, Eugene IV., reluctantly consented to call a 
Council to meet at Basel. First, however, he insisted on b. fifth 
Crusade, wliich was proclaimed for the complete extermination 
of the Hussites. The German princes made a last and des- 
perate effort : an army of 1 30,000 men, 40,000 of whom were 
cavalry, was brought together, under the command of Fre- 
derick of Brandenburg, while Albert of Austria was to sup- 
port it by invading Bohemia from the south. 

Procopius and his dauntless Hussites met the Crusaders 
on the 14th of August, 1431, at a place called Thauss, and 
won another of their marvellous victories. The Imperial army 
was literally cut to pieces: 8,000 wagons, filled with provi- 
sions and munitions of war, and 150 cannons, were left upon 
the field. The Hussites marched northward to the Baltic, and 
eastward into Hungary, burning, slaying and plundering as 
they went. Even the Pope now yielded, and the Hussites 
were invited to attend the Council at Basel, with the most so- 
lemn stipulations in regard to personal safety and a fair dis- 
cussion of their demands. Sigismund, in the meantime, had 
gone to Italy and been crowned Emperor in Pome , on con- 
dition of showing himself publicly as a personal servant of the 
Pope. He spent nearly two years in Italy, leading an idle and 



"What, now, was the position of the Hussites to the Empire? What did 
Sigismund do, during this time? When did he finally take part in tlie difli- 
culty? What did the Pope do? What army was raised? Under whose com- 
mand? When and where was the battle fouglit? What was the result? W^hat 
did the Hussites next do? How far did the Pope yield? What invitation 
was given? 



'*34.] END OF THE HUSSITE WAKS. 30 



immoral life, and went back to Germany wlien his money was 
exhausted. 

In 1433, finally, three hundred Hussites, headed by Pro- 
copius, appeared in Basel. They demanded nothing more than 
the acceptance of the four articles upon which they had united 
in 1420; but after seven weeks of talk, during which the 
Council agreed upon nothing and promised nothing, they 
marched away, after stating that any further negotiation 
must be carried on in Prague. This course compelled the 
Council to act; an embassy was appointed, which proceeded to 
Prague, and on the 30th of November, the same year, con- 
cluded a treaty with the Hussites. The four demands were 
granted, but each with a condition attached which gave the 
Church a chance to regain its lost power. For this reason, 
the Taborites and "Orphans" refused to accept the compact; 
the moderate party united with the nobles and undertook to 
suppress the former by force. A fierce internal war followed 
but it was of short duration. In 1434, the Taborites were 
defeated, their fortified mountain taken, Procopius the Great 
and the Little were both slain, and the members of the sect 
dispersed. The Bohemian Reformation was never again dan^^er- 
ous to the Church of Rome. '^ 

The Emperor Sigismund, after proclaiming a general am- 
nesty, entered Prague in 1436. He made some attempt to 
restore order and prosperity to the devastated country, but 
his measures m favor of the Church provoked a conspiracy 
against him, in which his second wife, the Empress Barbara 
was imphcated. Being warned by his son-in-law, Duke Albert 
of Austria he left Prague for Hungary. On reaching Znaim 
the capital of Moravia, he felt the approach of death, where- 
upon, after nammg Albert his successor, he had himself clothed 
in his Imperial robes and seated in a chair, so that, after a 
worthless life, he was able to die in great state, on the 9th of 



Where was Sigismund? Who went to hasel, when, and what did they 
domandf What was the result of the conference? Wl>at course did the Coun- 
cil then take? In wliat form were the Hussite demands eranted? What par- 
ties refused to accept the treaty? What foUowed? Wh^n, aad how did the 
war end? When did Sigismund come to Prague? Whai did he attempt? 
W hat provoked a conspiracy against him ? Who was implicated? 
14 



304 ALBERT OF HAPSBURG EMPEROR. [l433. 

December, 1437. With him expired the Luxemburg dynasty, 
after having weakened, distracted, humiliated and ahnost 
.uined Germany, for exactly ninety years. 



CHAPTER XXIIL 

THE FOUNDATION OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY. 

(1438—1493.) 

Albert of Austria Chosen Emperor. — His Short Reign. — Frederick III. Succeeds. 
—His Character.— The Council of Basel. — The French Mercenaries and the 
Swiss. — The Suabian Cities. — George Podiebrad in Bohemia and John 
Hunyadi in Hungary. — Condition of the German Empire.— Losses of the 
German Order. — Rise of Burgundy. — Charles the Bold and his Plans. — 
The Battles of Grandson and Morat.— Death of Charles the Bold.— Mar- 
riage of Maximilian of Hapsburg and Mary of Burgundy. — Frederick III.'s 
Troubles. — Aid of the Suabian Cities.— Maximilian's Humiliation. — Frede- 
rick's Death.— The Fall of the Eastern Empire.— Gutenberg's Invention of 
Printing. 

The German Electors seemed to be acting contrary to 
their usual policy, when, on the 18th of March, 1438, they un- 
animously voted for Albert of Austria, who became Emperor 
as Albert II. With him commences the Hapsburg dynasty, 
which kept sole possession of the Imperial office until Francis II. 
gave up the title of Emperor of Germany, in 1 806. Albert II. 
was Duke of Austria , and , as the heir of Sigismund , he was 
also king of Hungary and Bohemia, consequently the power 
of his house was much greater than that of any other Ger- 
man prince ; but the Electors were influenced by the considera- 
tion that his territories lay mostly outside of Germany pro- 
per, that they were in a condition which would demand all 
his time and energy, and therefore the other States and prin- 



Where, how, and in what manner did he die? What expired with him? 
How long had it endured? 

Whom did the Electors next choose, and when? What dynasty commenced 
with him? How long did it last? Who was Albert II., and what was his 
power? 



1440.J ELECTION OF FEEDEEICK Ul. 305 

cipalities would probably be left to themselves , as tliey had 
been under Sigismund. Nothing is more evident in the history 
of Germany, from first to last, than the opposition of the rul- 
ing princes to any close political union, of a national charac- 
ter, but it was seldom so selfishly and shamelessly manifested 
as in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 

The events of Albert II.'s short reign are not important. 
He appears to have been a man of strong character, honest 
and well-meaning, but a new war with the Turks called him 
to Hungary soon after his accession to the throne, and he was 
obliged to leave the interests of the Empire in the hands of 
his Chancellor, Schlick, a man who shared his views but could 
not exercise the same authority over the princes. Before any- 
thing could be accomplished, Albert died in Hungary, in Oc- 
tober, 1439, in the 42d year of his age. He left one son, La- 
dislas, an infant, born a few days after his death. 

The Electors again met, and in February, 1440, unani- 
mously chose Albert's cousin, Frederick of Styria and Carin- 
thia, who, after waiting three months before he could make 
up his mind, finally accepted, and was crowned at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle as Frederick HI. His indolence, eccentricity and pedantic 
stifihess seemed to promise just such a wooden figure-head as 
the princes required : it is difficult to imagine any other reason 
for the selection. He was more than a servant, he was almost 
an abject slave of the Papal power, and his secretary, ^neas 
Sylvius (who afterwards became Pope as Pius H.), ruled him 
wholly in the interest of the Church of Rome , at a time when 
a majority of the German princes, and even many of the Bish- 
ops, were endeavoring to efi'ect a reformation. 

The Council at Basel had not adjourned after concluding 
the Compact of Prague with the Hussites. The desire for a 
correction of the abuses which had so weakened the spiri- 
tual authority of the Church was strong enough to compel the 



"Wbat consideration influenced the Electors? What did the ruling princes 
always oppose? What was Albert II.'s character? What happened at the 
time of his election? Who governed in his absence? When and where did 
he die? Whom did he leave? When did the Electors meet, and whom elect? 
Where was he crowned? What was he? Who was his secretary, and what 
influence did he exercise? What movement was agitated, at the time? 



306 ATTEMPT TO CONQUER THE SWISS. [l444. 

members to discuss j)laiis of reform. Their course was so 
distasteful to the Pope, Eugene IV., that he threatened to excom- 
municate the Council, which, in return, deposed him and elec- 
ted Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, who took the name of Pope 
Felix V. The prospect of a new schism disturbed the Chris- 
tian world; many of the reigning princes refused to recognize 
Eugene unless he would grant entire freedom to the Church 
in Germany, and he would have probably been obliged to 
yield, but for the help extended to him by Frederick III., 
under the influence of -3Eneas Sylvius. The latter, who was 
no less unscrupulous than cunning, succeeded in destroying 
the work of reform in its very beginning. By the Concordat 
of Vienna, in 1448, Frederick neutralized the action of the 
Council and restored the Papal authority in its most despotic 
form. Felix V. was forced to abdicate, and the Council of 
Basel — which had meanwhile adjourned to Lausanne — was 
finally dissolved, after a session of 17 years. 

In his political course, during this time, Frederick III. was 
equally infamous, but less successful. After making a tem- 
porary arrangement with Hungary and Bohemia, he deter- 
mined to reconquer the former Hapsburg possessions from the 
Swiss. A quarrel between Zurich and the other Cantons seemed 
to favor his plan; but, not being able to obtain any troops 
in Germany, he applied to Charles VII. of France for 5000 of 
the latter's mercenaries. As Charles, with the help of Joan 
D'Arc, the Maid of Orleans, had just victoriously concluded 
his war with England, he had plenty of men to spare; so, in- 
stead of 5,000, he sent 30,000, under the command of the 
Dauphin. This force marched into Switzerland, and was met, 
on the 26th of August, 1444, at St. James, near Basel, by an 
army of 1600 devoted Swiss, every man of whom fell, after a 
battle which lasted ten hours. The French were so crippled 
and discouraged that they turned back and for months after- 



What happened at the Council of Basel? What did the Pope threaten? 
What did the Council then do? What course did the princes take? Who 
assisted Pope Eugene IV.? Wliat was effected at Vienna, and wlien? What 
was tlie end of the matter? What did Frederick III. next undertake? Where 
did he apply for troops? What was Charles VII.'s situation? When and 
where did the French meet the Swiss? What was the result? 



1455.] TEOUBLES IN HUNGAEY AND BOHEMIA. 307 

wards laid waste Baden and Alsatia; so that onl}^ German ter- 
ritory suffered by this transaction. 

The Suabian cities, inspii'ed by the heroic attitude of the 
Swiss, now made another attempt to protect themselves against 
the encroachment of the reigning princes upon their ancient 
rights. For two years a fierce war was waged between them 
and the latter, who were headed by the Hohenzollern Count, 
Albert Achilles of Brandenburg. The struggle came to an 
end in 1450, and so greatly to the disadvantage of the cities 
that the people of Schaffliausen annexed themselves and their 
territory to Switzerland. The following year, as there was a 
temporary peace, Frederick III. undertook a journey to Italy, 
with an escort of 3,000 men. His object was to be crowned 
Emperor at Rome, and the Pope could not refuse the request 
of such an obedient servant, especially after the latter had 
kissed his foot and appeared pubhcly as his groom. He was 
the last German Emperor who amused the Roman people by 
playing such a part. During the year he spent in Italy he 
avoided Milan, and made no attempt to claim, or even to sell, 
any of the former Imperial rights. 

Disturbances in Hungary and Bohemia hastened his return 
to Germany. Both countries demanded that he should give up 
the boy Ladislas, son of Albert IL, whom he still kept with him. 
In Bohemia George Podiebrad, a Hussite nobleman, was at the 
head of the government; in Hungary the ruler was John Hu- 
nyadi (often called Hiinniades by English historians), one of 
the most heroic and illustrious characters in Hungarian an- 
nals. The Emperor was compelled to give up Austria at once 
to Ladislas , who , at the age of 1 6 , was also chosen king of 
Hungary and Bohemia. But he died soon afterwards, in 1457, 
and then Mathew Corvinus , the son of Hunyadi, was elected 
king by the Hungarians, and George Podiebrad by the Bohe- 
mians. Even Austria, which Frederick attempted to retain, 



What did the French do afterwards ? What attempt did the Suabian Ci- 
ties make? How long was the war, and how did it terminate? Describe 
Frederick III.'s journey to Italy. How did he behave there? What recaUed 
him? What was demanded? Who governed in Bohemia? Who in Hnngary ? 
What wa3 the Emperor forced to do ? What followed the death of Ladislas ? 



308 HORKORS OF WAR IN GERMANY. [1457. 

passed partly into the hands of his brother Albert. The 
German princes looked on well-pleased, and saw the power of 
the Hapsburg house diminished; only its old ally, the house of 
Hohenzollern, still exhibited an active friendship for Frede- 
rick III. 

The condition of the Empire, at this time, was most deplo- 
rable. While France, England and Spain w^ere increasing their 
power by better political organization, Germany was weakened 
by an almost unbroken series of internal wars. The 340 in- 
dependent Dukes, Bishops, Counts, Abbots, Barons and Cities, 
fought or made peace, leagued themselves together or separa- 
ted, just as they pleased. So wanton became the spirit of de- 
struction that Albert Achilles of Brandenburg openly declared : 
"Conflagration is the ornament of war," — and the people de- 
scribed one of his campaigns by saying : "They can read at 
night, in Franconia." Frederick III. called a number of Na- 
tional Diets, but as he never attended any, the smaller rulers 
soon followed his example. Although the Turks began to ra- 
vage the borders of Styria and Carinthia, and carried away 
thousands of the inhabitants as slaves, he spent his time in 
Austria, quarreling with his brother Albert, and intriguing 
alternately with the Hungarians and the Bohemians, in the at- 
tempt to secure for himself the crowns worn by Mathew Cor- 
vinus and George Podiebrad. 

Along the Baltic shore the growth of the German element 
was checked, and almost destroyed. After its crushing defeat 
at Tannenberg, the German Order not only lost its power, but 
its liberal and intelligent character. It began to impose heavy 
taxes on the cities, and to rule with greater harshness the po- 
pulation under its sway. The result was a combined revolt of 
the cities and the country nobility, who compelled the Order 
to grant them a constitution, guaranteeing the rights for which 
they contended. They purchased Frederick III.'s consent to 
this measure for 54,000 gold florins. Soon afterwards, how- 



How did the German princes act? "What "was the condition of the coun- 
try? How many small powers were there, and what did they do? Give two 
illustrations of the state of things. What was Frederick III.'s course. What 
did he attempt? What happened in the North? How had the German Order 
changed? What was done by the cities and nobles? 



1437.] THE GROWTH OF BURGUNDY. 309 

ever, the Order paid the Emperor 80,000 gold florins to with- 
draw his consent. Then the cities and nobles, exasperated at 
this treachery, rose again, and called the Poles to their help. 
The Order appealed to the Empire, but received no assistance : 
it was defeated and its territory overran; West- Prussia was 
annexed to Poland, which held it for three centuries after- 
wards, and East-Prussia, detached completely from the Em- 
pire, was left as a little German island, surrounded by Slavonic 
races. The responsibility for this serious loss to Germany, as 
well as for the internal anarchy and barbarity which prevailed, 
rests directly upon the Electors, who selected Frederick III. 
precisely because they knew his character, and who never at- 
tempted to depose him, during his long and miserable reign of 
53 years. 

Germany was also seriously threatened on the west, not 
by France, but by the sudden growth of a new power which 
was equally dangerous to France. This was the Duchy of 
Burgundy, which in the course of a hundred years had grown to 
the dimensions of a kingdom , and was now strong enough to 
throw off the dependency of the territories it embraced, to 
France on the one side, and to the German Empire on the 
other. The foundation of its growth was laid in 1363, when 
king John of France made his fourth son, called Philip the Bold, 
Duke of Burgundy, and the latter, by marrying the Countess 
Margaret of Flanders, extended his territory to the mouth of 
the Rhine. He died in 1404, and was succeeded by his grand- 
son, Philip the Good, who extended the sway of Burgundy, by 
purchase, inheritance, or force of arms, over all Belgium and 
Holland, so that it then reached from the Rhine to the North 
Sea. His court was one of the most splendid in Europe, and 
during his reign of 63 years Flanders became the rival of Italy 
in wealth, architecture and the fine arts. 

Philip the Good died in 1467, and was succeeded by his 
son, Charles the Bold, a man whose boldness was his only 
virtue. He was rash, vindictive, and almost insanely ambi- 



How did the Order oppose them? Describe what followed. "Who was res- 
ponsible for this? How, else, was Germany threatened? How had Burgundy 
increased? Who founded its power, when, and how? How was it further 
extended? VThat was the character of Philip's Court? 



310 CIIAELES THE BOLD. [l473. 

tioas; and the only purpose of his life seems to have been to 
extend his territory to the Alps and the Mediterranean, to gain 
possession of Lorraine and Alsatia, and thus to found a king- 
dom of Burgundy, almost corresponding to that given to Lo- 
thar by the Treaty of Verdun, in 843. (See Chapter XII.) 
He first acquired additional territory in Belgium, then took a 
mortgage on all the possessions of the Hapsburgs in Alsatia and 
Baden, by making a loan to Sigismund of Tyrol. Frederick III. 
not only permitted these transactions, but met Charles at Tre- 
ves in 1473 to arrange a marriage between the latter's only 
daughter, Mary of Burgundy, and his own son, Maximilian. 
During the visit, which lasted two months, Charles the Bold 
displayed so much pomp and splendor that the Emperor, un- 
able to make an equal show, finally left without saying good- 
bye. The interests of Germany did not move him , but when 
his personal vainty was touched, he was capable of action. 

For a short time, Frederick exhibited a little energy and 
intelligence. In order to secure the alliance of the Swiss, who 
were equally threatened by the designs of Charles the Bold, 
he concluded a Perpetual Peace with them, relinquishing for- 
ever the claims of the house of Hapsburg to authority over 
any part of their territory. The cities of Alsatia and Baden 
advanced money to Sigismund of Tyrol, to pay his debt, and 
when Charles the Bold nevertheless refused to give up Alsatia 
and part of Lorraine, which he had seized in the meantime, 
war was declared against him. Louis XL of France, equally 
jealous of Burgundy, favored the movement, but took no active 
part in it. Although Charles was driven out of Alsatia, and 
failed to take the city of Neuss after a siege of ten months, 
he succeeded in negotiating a peace, by ofi'ering a truce of 
nine years to Louis XL and promising his daughter's hand to 
Frederick's son, Maximilian. In this treaty the Emperor, who 
had persuaded Switzerland and Lorraine to become his allies, 
infamously gave them up to Charles the Bold's revenge. 



What were Charles the Bold's character and aims? "What were his first 
measures? When did Frederick III. meet him, and witli what object? How 
did the former act? What policy did Frederick next adopt? Under what 
circumstances was war declared? How did CharleS procure peace? How 
were Switzerland and Lorraine treated? 



1473. 



CHAKLES THE BOLD. 



311 




CHARLES THE BOLD, IN ABSIOR, 



312 BATTLES OF GKANDSON AND MOKAT. [U76. 

The latter instantly seized the whole of Lorraine, trans- 
ferred his capital from Brussels to Nancy, and, considering 
his future kingdom secured, prepared first to punish the Swiss. 
He collected a magnificent army of 50,000 men , crossed the 
Jura, and appeared before the town of Grandson, on the Lake 
of Neufchatel. The place surrendered, on condition that the 
citizens should be allowed to leave, unharmed; but Charles 
seized them, hanged a number and threw the rest into the 
lake. By this time the Swiss army, numbering 18,000, ap- 
peared before Grandson. Before beginning the battle, they 
fell upon their knees and prayed fervently ; whereupon Charles 
cried out: "See, they are begging for mercy, but not one of them 
shall escape!" For several hours the fight raged fiercely; then 
the horns of the mountaineers — the "bulls of Uri and the cows 
of Unterwalden," as the Swiss called them — were heard in the 
distance, as they hastened to join their brethren. A panic 
seized the Burgundians, and after a short and desperate 
struggle they fled, leaving all their camp equipage, 420 can- 
non, and such enormous treasures in the hands of the Swiss 
that the soldiers divided the money by hatfuls. 

This grand victory occurred on the 3d of May, 1476. 
Charles made every effort to retrieve his fortunes: he called 
fresh troops into the field, reorganized his army, and on the 
2 2d of June again met the Swiss near the little town and lake 
of Morat. The battle fought there resulted in a more crush- 
ing defeat than that of Grandson: 15,000 Burgundians were 
left dead upon the field. The aid which the Swiss had begged 
the German Empire to give them had not been granted, but 
it was not needed. Charles the Bold seems to have become 
partially insane after this overthrow of his ambitious plans. 
He refused the proferred mediation of Frederick IH. and the 
Pope, and endeavored to resume the war. In the meantime 
Duke Bene of Lorraine had recovered his land, and when 
Charles marched to retake Nancy, the Swiss allied themselves 



What was Charlfts'a course? How did he open the campaign? How did 
he treat the people of Grandson? How many Swiss opposed him? Describe 
the battle. What were the losses of the Burgundians? When did the victory 
occur? When and where did Charles again meet the Swiss? What was the 
fate of the battle? Whut effect had it upon him? What was his course? 



14'?.] MASEIAGE OF MAXIIVULIAN. 313 

with tlie former. A final battle was fought before the walls 
of Nancy, in January, 1477. After the defeat and flight of 
the Burgundians, the body of Charles was found on the field, 
so covered with blood and mud as scarcely to be recognized. 

Up to this time, the German Empire had always claimed 
that its jurisdiction extended over Switzerland, but henceforth 
no effort was ever made to enforce it. The little communities 
of free people, who had defied and humiliated Austria, and 
now, within a few months, crushed the splendid and haughty 
house of Burgundy, were left alone, an eyesore to the neigh- 
boring princes, but a hope to their people. The Hapsburg 
dynasty, nevertheless, profited by the fall of Charles the Bold. 
Mary of Burgundy gave her hand to Maximilian, in 1477, and 
he established his court in Flanders. He was both handsome 
and intellectually endowed, and was reputed to be the most 
accomplished knight of his day. Louis XI. of France attempted 
to gain possession of those provinces of Burgundy which had 
French population, but was signally defeated by Maximilian 
in 1479. Three years afterwards, however, when Mary of 
Burgundy was killed by a fall from her horse, the cities of 
Bruges and Ghent, instigated by France, claimed the guar- 
dianship of her two children, Philip and Margaret, the latter 
of whom was sent to Paris to be educated as the bride of the 
Dauphin. A war ensued which lasted until 1485, when Maxi- 
milian was reluctantly accepted as Regent of Flanders. 

While these events were taking place, Frederick III. was 
involved in a quarrel with Mathew Corvinas, king of Hun- 
gary, who easily succeeded in driving him from Vienna, and 
then from Austria. Still the German princes looked carelessly 
on, and the weak old Emperor wandered from one to the other, 
everywhere received as an unwelcome guest. In 1486 he 
called a Diet at Frankfort, and endeavored, but in vain, to 
procure a union of the forces of the Empire against Hungary. 



What happened next? When was the final battle fought, and where? 
What was now the position of Switzerland ? How did the Hapsburg dynasty 
profit by Charles's fall? How is Maximilian described? What did Louis XI. 
attempt? What happened three years afterwards? How long did the war 
last? What was Frederick III.'s next trouble? How was he treated by the 
princes? 



ol4 TEOUBLES OF FEEDEEICK III. [l490. 

All that was accomplished was Maximilian's election as King 
of Germany. Immediately after being crowned at Aix-la- 
Chapelle, he made a formal demand on Mathew Corvinus for 
the surrender of Austria. Before any further steps could be 
taken, he was recalled to Flanders by a new rebellion, which 
lasted for three years. 

Frederick III., deserted on all sides, and seeing the Ilaps- 
burg possessions along the frontiers of Austria and Tyrol 
threatened by Bavaria, finally appealed to the Suabian cities 
for help. He succeeded in establishing a new Suabian League, 
which was composed of 22 free cities, the Count of Wiirtem- 
berg and a number of independent nobles. A force was raised, 
with which he first marched to the relief of Maximilian , who 
had been taken and imprisoned at Bruges and was threatened 
with death. The undertaking was successful : Maximilian was 
released, and in 1489 his authority was established over all 
the Netherlands. 

The next step was to rescue Austria from the Hungarians. 
An interview between Frederick III. and Mathew Corvinus 
was arranged, but before it could take place the latter died, 
in April, 1490. Maximilian, with the troops of the Suabian 
League, retook Vienna, and even advanced into Hungary, the 
crown of which country he claimed for himself, but was forced 
to conclude peace at Presburg, the following year, without 
obtaining it. Austria, however, was completely restored to 
the house of Hapsburg. 

Before the year 1491 came to an end, Maximilian suffered 
a new humiliation. The last Duke of Brittany (in Western 
France) had died, leaving, like Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 
a single daughter, Anna, as his only heir. Maximilian, who 
had been a widower since 1482, applied for her hand, which 
she promised to him: the marriage ceremony was even per- 
formed by proxy. But Charles YIII. of France, although be- 
trothed to Maximilian's young daughter^ Margaret, now 14 
years old, saw in this new alliance a great danger for his king- 



What was done hy the Diet ? What were Maximilian*s movements ? To 
whom did Frederick appeal? What new league was established? What was 
first done? With what result? AVhat was the next step? How was the 
matter settled? 



1493.J HIS DEATH. 315 

dom; so he prevented Anna from leaving Brittany, married 
her himself, and sent Margaret home to Austria. Maximilian 
entered into an alliance with Henry VII. of England , secured 
the support of the Suabian League, and made war upon 
France. The Netherlands , nevertheless , refused to aid him ; 
whereupon Henry VII. withdrew from the alliance, and the 
matter was settled by a treaty of peace in 1493, which left 
the duchy of Burgundy in the hands of France. 

Frederick III. had already given up the government of 
Germany (that is, what little he exercised) to his son. He 
settled at Linz and devoted his days to religion and alchemy. 
He had a habit of thrusting back his right foot and closing 
the doors behind him with it; but one day, kicking out too 
violently, he so injured his leg that the physicians were obliged 
to amputate it. This accident hastened his death, which took 
place in August, 1493. He was 78 years old, and had reigned 
53 years, wretchedly enough — but of this fact he was not 
aware. He evidently considered himself a great and successful 
monarch. All his books were stamped with the vowels, A. E. 
I. 0. U. — which was a mystery to every one, until the meaning 
was discovered after his death. The letters are the initials of 
the words, Alles Erdreich 1st Ocstcrreich TJntcrtlian, ''AH 
Earth is subject to Austria"! 

Two events occurred during Frederick's reign, one of which 
illustrated the declining power of the Roman Church, while the 
other, unnoticed in the confusion of civil war, was destined to 
be the chief weapon for the overthrow of the priestly power. 
The first of these was the fall of the Eastern Empire , when 
Sultan Mahmoud II. conquered Constantinople in 1453. Al- 
though this catastrophe had been long foreseen, the news of it 
nevertheless created a powerful excitement throughout Europe. 
One- fourth of the zeal expended on any one of the Crusades 
would have saved Turkey to Christendom: the German Em- 
pire, alone, could have easily repelled the Ottoman invasion; 



Describe Maximilian's humiliation. How did he attempt to revenge it? 
When, and how, was the conflict settled? How were Frederick's last years 
employed? What accident happened to him? W^hen did he die, and how 
long had he reigned ? How were his books lettered ? What was the first of 
two great events during his reign? 



316 THE INVENTION OF PEINTING. [l440. 

but each petty ruler thought only of himself, and the Popes 
were solely interested in preventing the Reformation of the 
Church. The latter, now — especially Pius II. (^neas Sylvius) 
— were very eager for a new Crusade for the recovery of Con- 
stantinople: tliere was much talk, but no action, and finally 
even the talk ceased. 

The other event was a simple invention, which is chiefly 
remarkable for not having been made long before. The great 
use of cards for gambling first led to the employment of woo- 
den blocks, upon which the figures were cut and then printed 
in colors. Wood-engraving, of a rude kind, gradually came into 
use, and as early as the year 1420 Lawrence Coster, of Harlem, 
in Holland, produced entire books, each page of which was en- 
graved upon a single block. But John Gutenberg, of Mayence, 
about the year 1436, originated the plan of casting movable 
types and setting them together to form words. His chief 
difficulty was in discovering a proper metal of which to cast 
them, and a kind of ink which would give a clear impression. 
Paper made of linen had already been in use, in Germany, for 
about 130 years. 

Gutenberg was poor, and therefore took a man named Fust, 
who had considerable means, as his partner. They completed 
the first printing-press in 1440, but several more years elapsed 
before the invention achieved any result. There was a 
quarrel between the two; Gutenberg withdrew, and Fust took 
his own assistant, Peter Schcefier, as partner in the former's 
place. Schoefi'er discovered the right combination of metal for 
the types, as well as an excellent ink. In 1457 appeared the 
first printed book, a Latin psalter; in 1461 the Latin Bible, 
and two years afterwards a German Bible. These Bibles are 
masterpieces of the printer's art: they were sold at from 30 to 
60 gold florins a copy, which was just one - tenth the cost of a 
written Bible at that time. The art was at first kept a pro- 



How might it havo been prevented? Was anything done? What was the 
second event? What was the first steps towards it? When, and by whom, 
were engraved books produced? Who originated movable types, and when? 
What difficulty had he? How long had paper been made? Who was Guten- 
berg's partner? When was the first printing-press made? What change fol- 
lowed? What did Schceffer discover? When were the first books printed? 
How were they sold ? 



1462.] 



IT IS GIVEN TO EUKOPE. 



317 



found secret, and the people supposed that the books were 
produced by magic, as they were multiplied so rapidly and 
sold so cheaply; but when Mayence was taken by Adolf of 
Nassau, in 1462, during one of the civil wars, the invention 
became known to the world, and printing-presses were soon 
established in Holland, Italy and England. 




OTJTENBBRG INTBNTS PRINTnTG. 



The clergy, and especially the monks, would have sup- 
pressed the art, if they had been able. It took away from the 
latter the profitable business of copying manuscript works, 
and it placed within the reach of the people the knowledge, of 
which the former had preserved the monopoly. By the simple 



What did the people suppose? How did the invention become known? 
Who opposed it? How did it interfere with them? 



318 MAXIMILIAN I. [l493. 

invention of movable types , the darkness of centuries began 
to recede from the world: the life of the Middle Ages grew 
faint and feeble, and a mighty, irresistible change swept over 
the minds and habits of men. But the rulers of that day, great 
or little, were the last persons to suspect that any such change 
was at hand. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



GEEMANT, DUKING THE EEIGN OF MAXIMILIAN I. 

(1493—1519.) 

Maximilian I. as Man and Eraperor.— The Diet of 1495, at Worms. — Tlie Per- 
petual Peace Declared. — The Imperial Court. — Marriage of Philip of Haps- 
burg to Joanna of Spain. — War with Switzerland. — March to Italy. — League 
against Venice. — The "Holy League" against France. — The Diet of 1512. — 
The Empire divided into Ten Districts.— Eevolts of the Peasants. — The 
''Bond-Shoe" and "Poor Konrad." — Change in Military service. — Character 
of Maximilian's Reign.— The Cities of Germany. — Their Wealth and Archi- 
tecture.— The Order of the "Holy Vehm."— Other Changes under Maxi- 
milian. — Last Years of his Eeign.— His Death. 

As Maximilian had been elected in 1486, he began to 
exercise the full Imperial power, without any further forma- 
lities, after his father's death. For the first time since the 
death of Henry VII. in 1313, the Germans had a popular Em- 
peror. They were at last weary of the prevailing disorder 
and insecurity, and partly conscious that the power of the 
Empire had declined, while that of France, Spain, and even 
Poland, had greatly increased. Therefore they brought them- 
selves to submit to the authority of an Emperor who was in 
every respect stronger than any of the Electors by whom he 
had been chosen. 

Maximilian had all the qualities of a great ruler, except 
prudence and foresight. He was tall, finely-formed, with re- 
markably handsome features, clear blue eyes, and blond hair 



How did Maximilian begin to reign? What was felt and desired in Oer- 
mauy? What wore the Emperor's qualities? 



1493.] 



MAXIMILIAN I. 



319 






falling in ringlets upon his shoulders ; he possessed great mus- 
cular strength, his body was developed by constant exercise, 
and he was one of the boldest, bravest and most skilful knights 
of his day. While 
his bearing was 
stately and digni- 
fied, his habits were 
simple : he often 
marched on foot, 
carrying his hmce, 
at the head of his 
troops , and was 
able to forge his ar- 
mor and temper his 
sword, as well as 
wear them. Yet he 
was also well-edu- 
cated, possessed a 
taste for literature 
and the arts, and 
became something 
of a poet in his 
later years. Unlike 
his avaricious pre- 
decessors, he was 
generous even to 
prodigality; but, 
inheriting his fa- 
ther's eccentricity 
of character, he 
was whimsical, li- 
able to act from 
impulse instead of 
reflection , head- 
strong and impatient. If he had been as wise as he was honest 
and well-meaning, he might have regenerated Germany. 

The commencement of his reign was signalized by two 




SLAXlMIIilAK I. 



What was his personal appearance? His bearing, habits and skiU? "What 
of his intelligence ? What were his imperfections ? 



o 



20 PERPETUAL PEACE PROCLAIMED. [l49; 



threatening events. The Turks were renewing their invasions, 
and boldly advancing into Carinthia, between Vienna and the 
Adriatic; Charles Vlll. of France had made himself master of 
Naples, and was apparently bent on conquering and annexing 
all of Italy. Maximilian had just married Blanca Maria Sforza, 
niece of the reigning Duke of Milan , which city, with others 
in Lombardy, and even the Pope — forgetting their old enmity 
to the German Empire — demanded his assistance. He called 
a Diet, which met at Worms in 1495 ; but many of the princes, 
both spiritual and temporal, had learned a little wisdom, and 
they were unwilling to interfere in matters outside of the Em- 
pire until something had been done to remedy its internal 
condition. Berthold, Archbishop of Mayence, Frederick the 
Wise of Saxony, John Cicero of Brandenburg, and Eberhard 
of the Beard, first Duke of Wiirtemberg, with many of the free 
cities, insisted so strongly on the restoration of order, security, 
and the establishment of laws which should guarantee peace, 
that tlie Emperor was forced to comply. For fourteen weeks 
the question was discussed with the greatest earnestness : the 
opposition of many princes and nearly the whole class of nobles 
was overcome, and a Perpetual National Peace was proclaimed. 
By this measure, the right to use force was prohibited to all; 
the feuds which had desolated the land for a thousand years 
were ordered to be suppressed; and all disputes were referred 
to an Imperial Court, permanently established at Frankfort, 
and composed of 16 Councillors. It was also agreed that the 
Diet should meet annually, and remain in session for one month, 
in order to insure the uninterrupted enforcement of its de- 
crees. A proposition to appoint an Imperial Council of State 
(equivalent to a modern "Ministry"), of 20 members, which 
should have power, in certain cases, to act in the Emperor's 
name, was rejected by Maximilian, as an assault upon his per- 
sonal rights. 

Although the decree of Perpetual Peace could not be car- 



What signalized the beginning of liis reign? Who asked his assistance? 
When and wJiere did the Diet meet? What was the feeling of its members? 
Who deminded the restoration of order? How long was the matter dis- 
cussed? What was proclaimed? What were its provisions? What change 
was made in the Diet? What proposition was made, and why refused? 



1496.] INCKEASE OF MAXIMILIAn's POWEK, 321 

ried into effect immediately, it was not a dead letter, as all 
former decrees of the kind had been. Maximilian bound him- 
self, in the most solemn manner, to respect the new arrange- 
ments, and there were now several honest and intelligent 
princes to assist him. One difficulty was the collection of a 
government tax, called "the common penny," to support the 
expenses of the Imperial Court. Such a tax had been for the 
first time imposed during the war with the Hussites, but very 
little of it was then paid. Even now, when the object of it 
was of such importance to the whole people, several years 
elapsed before the Court could be permanently established. 
The annual sessions of the Diet, also, were much less effective 
than had been anticipated: princes, priests and cities were so 
accustomed to a selfish independence, that they could not yet 
work together for the general good. 

Before the Diet at Worms adjourned, it agreed to furnish 
the Emperor with 9,000 men, to be employed in Italy against 
the French, and afterwards against the Turks on the Austrian 
frontier. Charles YIII. retreated from Italy, on hearing of 
this measure, yet not rapidly enough to avoid being defeated, 
near Parma, by the combined Germans and Milanese. In 1496 
Sigismund of Tyrol died, and all the Hapsburg lands came 
into Maximilian's possession. The same year, he married his 
son Philip, then 18 years old and accepted as Regent by the 
Netherlands, to Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella of Castile. The other heirs to the Spanish throne died 
soon afterwards, and when Isabella followed them, in 1504, 
she appointed Philip and Joanna her successors. The pride and 
influence of the house of Hapsburg were greatly increased by 
this marriage, but its consequences were most disastrous to 
Germany, for Philip's son was Charles V. 

The next years of Maximilian's reign were disturbed, and, 
on the whole, unfortunate for the Empire. An attempt to 
apply the decrees of the Diet of Worms to Switzerland brought 



How was the Perpetual Peace received? What difficulty was there? What 
rrevented the Diet from being effective? What else did it do, at Worms? 
What was Charles VIII. 'a course? How else was Maximilian strengthened? 
To whom did he marry his son? What was the result of this marriage? 
Who was Philip's sou? What was Maximilian's further reign? 



322 WARS WITH VENICE AND FRANCE. [l508. 

on a war, which, after occasioning the destruction of 2,000 
villages and castles, and the loss of 20,000 lives, -resulted in 
the Emperor formally acknowledging the independence of 
Switzerland, at a treaty concluded at Basel in 1499. Then 
Louis XII. of France captured Milan, interfered secretly in a 
war concerning the succession, which broke out in Bavaria, 
and bribed various German princes to act in his interest, when 
Maximilian called upon the Diet to assist him in making war 
upon France. After having with much difficulty obtained 
12,000 men, the Emperor marched to Italy, intending to re- 
place the Sforza family in Milan and then be crowned by Pope 
Julius II. in Rome. But the Venetians stopped him at the 
outset of the expedition, and he was forced to return inglori- 
ously to Germany. 

Maximilian's next step was another example of his want 
of judgment in political matters. In order to revenge himself 
upon Venice, he gave up his hostility to France, and in 1508, 
became a party to the League of Cambray, uniting with France, 
Spain and the Pope in a determined effort to destroy the Ve- 
netian Republic. The war, which was bloody and barbarous, 
even for those times, lasted three years. Venice lost, at the 
outset, Trieste, Verona, Padua and the Romagna, and seemed 
on the verge of ruin, when Maximilian suddenly left Italy 
with his army, offended, it was said, at the refusal of the 
French knights, to fight side by side with his German troops. 
The Venetians then recovered so much of their lost ground 
that they purchased the alliance of the Pope, and finally of 
Spain. A new aUiance, called "the Holy League," was formed 
against France; and Maximilian, after continuing to support 
Louis XII. a while longer , finally united with Henry VII. of 
England in joining it. But Louis XII., who was a far better 
diplomatist than any of his enemies, succeeded, after he had 
suffered many inevitable losses, in dissolving this powerful 
combination. He married the sister of Henry of England, 



Describe the conflict with Switzerland. How did Louis XII. of Franco 
interfere? Why did Maximilian, march to Italy? What thwarted his plan? 
How, and when, did he seek revenge on Venice? How long did the war last? 
What happened at the outset? Why did Maximilian retire from it? What 
new alliance was formed? 



1512.J OKOANIZATION OF THE EMPIKE. 323 

yielded Navarre and Naples to Spain, promised money to the 
Swiss, and held out to Maximilian the prospect of a marriage 
which would give Milan to the Hapsburgs. 

Thus the greater part of Europe was for years convulsed 
with war chieily because instead of a prudent and intelligent 
national power in Germany, there was an unsteady and ex- 
citable family leader, whose first interest was the advantage of 
his house. After such sacrifices of blood and treasure, such 
disturbance to the development of industry, art and knowledge 
among the people, the same confusion prevailed, as before. 

Before the war came to an end, another general Diet 
met at Cologne, in 1512, to complete the organization commen- 
ced in 1495. Private feuds and acts of retaliation had not 
yet been suppressed, and the Imperial Council was working 
under great disadvantages, both from the want of money and 
the difficulty of enforcing obedience to its decisions. The Em- 
peror demanded the creation of a permanent military force, 
which should be at the service of the Empire; but this was 
almost unanimously refused. In other respects, the Diet 
showed itself both willing and earnest to complete the work 
of peace and order. The whole Empire was divided into ten 
Districts, each of which was placed under the jurisdiction of a 
Judicial Chief and Board of Councillors, whose duty it was to see 
that the decrees of the Diet and the judgments of the Imperial 
Court were obeyed. 

The Districts were as follows: 1. — The Austrian, em- 
bracing all the lands governed by the Hapsburgs, from the 
Danube to the Adriatic, with the Tyrol, and some territory on 
the Upper Khine: Bohemia, Silesia and Hungary were not in- 
cluded. 2. — The Bavarian, comprising the divisions on both 
sides of the Danube, and the bishopric of Salzburg. 3. — The 
SuABiAN, made up of no less than 90 spiritual and temporal 
principalities, including Wiirtemberg, Baden, HohenzoUern, 
and the bishoprics of Augsburg and Constance. 4. — The 



How did Louis XII. break it up? Why was Europe convulsed with war? 
When did the Diet again meet, and why? How was the reform working? 
What did the Emperor demand? Otherwise, how did the Diet act? How wao 
the Empire divided, and for what purpose? What was the First Diatrict? 
The Second? The Third? The Fourth? 



324 THE TEN DISTRICTS. [l512. 

Franconian, embracing the Brandenburg possessions, Ans- 
bach and Baireuth, with Nuremberg and the bishoprics of 
Bamberg, Wiirzburg, &c. 5. — The Upper- Rhenish, compris- 
ing the Palatinate, Hesse, Nassau, the bishoprics of Basel, 
Strasburg, Speyer, Worms, &c., the free cities of the Rhine as 
far as Frankfort, and a number of petty States. 6. — The 
Electoral-Rhenish, with the Archbishoprics of the Palati- 
nate, Mayence, Treves, Cologne, and the principality of Am- 
berg. 7. — The Burgundian, made up of 21 States, four of 
them dukedoms and eight countships. 8. — The Westphalian, 
with the dukedoms of Jiilich, Cleves and Berg, Oldenburg, 
part of 1^'riesland, and 7 bishoprics. 9. — The Lower Saxon, 
embracing the dukedoms of Brunswick-Luneburg, Saxe-Lauen- 
burg, Holstein and Mecklenburg, the Archbishoprics of Magde- 
burg and Liibeck, the free cities of Bremen, Hamburg and 
Liibeck, and a number of smaller States. 10. — The Upper 
Saxon, including the Electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg, 
the dukedom of Pomerania, the smaller States of Anhalt, Schwarz- 
burg, Mansfeld, Reuss, and many others of less importance. 

This division of Germany into districts had the external 
appearance of an orderly political arrangement; but the States, 
great and little, had been too long accustomed to having their 
own way,) The fact that an independent baron, like Franz von 
Sickingen, could still disturb a large extent of territory for a 
number of years, shows the weakness of the new national 
power. Moreover, nothing seems to have been done, or even 
attempted, by the Diet, to protect the agricultural population 
from the absolute despotism of the landed nobihty. In Al- 
satia, as early as 1493, there was a general revolt of the pea- 
sants (called by them the Bond-shoe)^ which was not sup- 
pressed until much blood had been shed. It excited a spirit 
of resistance throughout all Southern Germany. In 1514, 
Duke Ulric of Wiirtemberg undertook to replenish his treasury 
by using false weights and measures, and provoked the com- 
mon people to rise against him. They formed a society, to 



The Fifth? The Sixth? The Seventh? The Eighth? The Ninth? The 
Tenth? What showed the weakness of the national power? What did the 
Diet fail to do? What revolt occurred, where, and when? Wliat other re- 
volt was provoked, when and by whom? 



1512.J 



MILITARY CHANGES. 



325 



which they gave the name of "Poor Konrad," which became 
so threatening that, although it was finally crushed by violence, 
it compelled the reform of many flagrant evils and showed 
even the most arrogant rulers that there were bounds to 
tyranny. 

But, although the feudal system was still in force, the obli- 
gation to render military service, formerly belonging to it, was 




THE HALL OP A NOBLEMAN, IN THE 16TH CENTUBY. 

nearly at an end. The use of cannon, and of a rude kind of mus- 
ket, had become general in war: heavy armor for man and horse 
was becoming not only useless, but dangerous; and the courage 
of the soldier, not his bodily strength or his knightly accomplish- 
ments, constituted his value in the field. The Swiss had set the 
example of furnishing good troops to whoever would pay for 
them, and a similar class, calling themselves Landsknechte 



What was this society, and its fate? What obligation was nearly' at aa 
ond? How was the character of war changed? 



326 THE GERMAN CITIES. [l512. 

(Servants of the Country), arose in German}^ The robber- 
knights, by this time, were nearly extinct: when Frederick of 
Hohenzollern began to use artillery against their castles , it 
was evident that their days of plunder were over. The reign 
of Maximilian, therefore, marks an important turning-point 
in German history. It is, at the same time, the end of the 
stormy and struggHng life of the Middle Ages, and the begin- 
ning of a new and fiercer struggle between men and their op- 
pressors. Maximilian, in fact, is called in Germany "the Last 
of the Knights." 

The strength of Germany lay chiefly in the cities, which, 
in spite of their narrow policy towards the country, and their 
jealousy of each other, had at least kept alive and encouraged 
all forms of art and industry, and created a class of learned 
men outside of the Church. While the knighthood of the 
Hohenstaufen period had sunk into corruption and semi-bar- 
barism, and the people had grown more dangerous through 
their ignorance and subjection, the cities had gradually become 
centres of wealth and intelligence. They were adorned with 
S23lendid works of achitecture ; they supported the early poets, 
painters and sculptors: and, when compelled to act in concert 
against the usurpations of the Emperor or the inferior rulers, 
whatever privileges they maintained or received were in favor 
of the middle-class, and therefore an indirect gain to the 
whole people. 

The cities, moreover, exercised an influence over the country 
population, by their markets, fairs, and festivals. The most 
of them were as large and as handsomely built as at present, 
but in times of peace the life within their walls was much 
gayer and more brilliant. Pope Pius II., when he was secre- 
tary to Frederick III. as ^neas Sylvius, wrote of them as 
follows: "One may veritably say that no people in Europe 
live in cleaner or more cheerful cities than the Germans; tlieir 



."What new class arose? What put an end to the robber-knights? What 
does Maximilian's reign mark? What is he called? Where was the strength 
of Germany? What had the cities done, and what had they become? Wliat 
did they encourage and support? How were the people benefited by their 
growth? Over whom did they exercise an influence? \Vhat was their sizo 
and appearance? 



1512.J THE HOLY VEHM. 327 

appearance Is as new as if they had only been built yesterday. 
By their commerce they amass great wealth: there is no ban- 
quet at which they do not drink from silver cups , no dame 
who does not wear golden ornaments. Moreover the citizens 
are also soldiers, and each one has a sort of arsenal in his own 
house. The boys in this country can ride before they can talk, 
and sit firmly in the saddle when the horses are at full speed : 
the men move in their armor without feeling its weight. Ve- 
rily, you Germans might be masters of the world, as formerly, 
but for your multitude of rulers , which every wise man has 
always considered an evil!" 

During the fifteenth century a remarkable institution, 
called "the Yehm" — or, by the people, "the Holy Vehm" — 
exercised a great authority throughout Northern Germany. 
Its members claimed that it was founded by Charlemagne, to 
assist in establishing Christianity among the Saxons ; but it 
is not mentioned before the twelfth century, and the probabil- 
ity is that it sprang up from the effort of the people to pre- 
serve their old democratic organization, in a secret form, after 
it had been overthrown by the reigning princes. The object 
of the Vehm was to enforce impartial justice among all classes, 
and for this purpose it held open courts for the settlement of 
quarrels and minor offences, while graver crimes were tried at 
night, in places known only to the members. The latter were 
sworn to secres}^, and also to implicit obedience to the judg- 
ments of the courts or the orders of the chiefs, who were called 
"Free Counts." The head-quarters of the Vehm were in West- 
phalia, but its branches spread over a great part of Germany, 
and it became so powerful during the reign of Frederick III. 
that it even dared to cite him to appear before its tribunal. 

In all probability the dread of the power of the Vehm 
was one of the causes which induced both Maximilian and the 
princes to reorganize the Empire. In proportion as order and 
justice began to prevail in Germany, the need of such a secret 
institution grew less; but about another century elapsed before 



"What did Pope Pius II. say of them? "What institution exercised an 
authority, and where? What did its members assert? How did it probably 
originate? What was its object, and how carried out? Where were its head- 
quarters? What step did it venture? 

15 



328 LAST YEARS OF MAXIMILIAN. [l518. 

its courts ceased to be held. After that, it continued to exist 
in Westphalia as an order for mutual assistance, something 
like that of the Freemasons. In this form it lingered until 
1838, when the last '^Free Count" died. 

Among the other changes introduced during Maximilian's 
reign were the establishment of a" police system, and the in- 
vention of a postal system by Franz of Taxis. The latter ob- 
tained a monopoly of the post routes throughout Germany, 
and his family, which afterwards became that of Thurn and 
Taxis, received an enormous revenue from this source , from 
that time down to the present day. Maximilian himself de- 
voted a great deal of time and study to the improvement of 
artillery, and many new forms of cannon, which were designed 
by him, are still preserved in Vienna. 

Although the people of Germany did not share, to any 
great extent, in the passion for travel and adventure w^iich 
followed the discovery of America in 1492 and the circum- 
navigation of Africa in 1498, they were directly affected by 
the changes which took place in the commerce of the world. 
The supremacy of Venice in the South and of the Hanseatic 
League in the North of Europe, began slowly to decline, while 
tlie powers which undertook to colonize the new lands — Eng- 
land, Spain and Portugal — rose in commercial importance. 

The last years of Maximilian promised new splendors to 
the house of Hapsburg. In 1515 his younger grandson, Fer- 
dinand , married the daughter of Ladislas , king of Bohemia 
and Hungary, whose only son died shortly afterwards, leaving 
Ferdinand heir to the double crown. In 1516, the Emperor's 
elder grandson, Karl, became king of Spain, Sicily and Naples, 
in addition to Burgundy and Flanders, which he held as the 
great-grandson of Charles the Bold. At a Diet held at Augsburg, 
in 1518, Maximilian made great exertions to have Karl elected 
his successor, but failed on account of the opposition of Pope 



"What diminished its po-^or? How long, and in what form, did it last? 
What other changes did Maximilian introduce? What family owned the 
post-routes? What study did Maximilian pursue? What changes took place 
in the commerce of the world? What happened towards the close of Maxi- 
milian's reign? To what did liie grandson, Karl, succeed? 



1519.J DEATH OF MAXIMILIAN. 329 

Leo X. and Francis I. of France, whose agents were present 
with heavy bribes in their pockets. 

Disappointed and depressed, the Emperor left Augsburg, 
and went to Innsbruck, but the latter city refused to enter- 
tain him until some money which he had borrowed of it should 
be refunded. His strength had been failing for years before, 
and he always travelled with a coffin among his baggage. He 
now felt his end approaching, took up his abode in the little 
town of Wels, and devoted his remaining days to religious 
exercises. There he died, on the 11th of January, 1519, in 
the 60th year of his age. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

THE KEFOEMATIOX. (1517—1546.) 

Martin Luther.— Signs of the Coming Reformation. — Luther's Youth and Edu- 
cation. — His Study of the Bible. — His Professorship at Wittenberg.— Visit 
to Rome. — Tetzel's Sale of Indulgences. -Luther's Theses.— His Meeting 
with Cardinal Cajetanus. — Escape from Augsburg. — Meeting with the 
Pope's Nuncio. — Excitement in Germany. — Luther burns the Popes Bull. — 
Charles V. elected German Emperor. — Luther before the Diet at Worms. 
— His Abduction and Concealment. — He Eeturns to Wittenberg.— Progrecs 
of the Reformation. — The Anabaptists. — The Peasants' War. — Lutlier's 
Manner of Translating the Bible.— Leagues For and Against the Refor- 
mation.— Its Features.— The Wars of Charles V.— Diet at Speyer.— The 
Protestants.— The Swiss Reformer, Zwingli.— His Meeting with Luther. — 
Charles V. returns to Germany. — The Augsburg Confession. — Measures 
against the Protestants. — The League of Schmalkalden.-The Religions 
Peace of Nuremberg. — Its Consequences. — John of Leyden. — Another Diet. 
— Charles V. Invades France. — The Council of Trent. — Luther's Last Years. 
—His Death and Burial. 

When the Emperor Maximilian died, a greater man than 
himself or any of his predecessors on the Imperial throne had 
already begun a far greater work than was ever accomplished 
by any political ruler. Out of the ranks of the poor, oppres- 
sed German people arose the chosen Leader who became 
powerful above all princes, who resisted the first monarch of 
the world, and defeated the Church of Rome after an undis- 



What happened at the Diet in 1518? How was the Emperor received at 
Innsbruck? WLoa and where did he die? 



330 BIRTH OF LUTHER. [l483. 

turbed reign of a thousand years. AVe must therefore leave the 
succession of the house of llapsburg until we have traced the 
life of Martin Luther up to the time of Maximilian's death. 

The Reformation, which was now so near at hand, already 
existed in the feelings and hopes of a large class of the people. 
The persecutions of the Albigenses in France, the Waldenses 
in Savoy and the Wickliffites in England, the burning of Huss 
and Jerome, and the long ravages of the Hussite war had made 
all Europe familiar with the leading doctrine of each of these 
sects — that the Bible was the highest authority, the only 
source of Christian truth. Earnest, thinking men in all coun- 
tries were thus led to examine the Bible for themselves, and 
the great dissemination of the study of the ancient languages, 
during the fifteenth century, helped very much to increase the 
knowledge of the sacred volume. Then came the art of print- 
ing, as a most providential aid, making the truth accessible to 
all who were able to read it. 

The long reign of Frederick III. , as we have seen , was a 
period of political disorganization, which was partially correc- 
ted during the reign of Maximilian. Internal peace w^as the 
first great necessity of Germany, and, until it had been estab- 
lished, the people patiently endured the oppressions and 
abuses of the Church of Rome. When they were ready for a 
serious resistance to the latter, the man was also ready to in- 
struct and guide them, and the Church itself furnished the oc- 
casion for a general revolt against its authority. 

Martin Luther , the son of a poor miner , was born in the 
little Saxon town of Eisleben (not far from the Hartz), on the 
10th of November, 1483. He attended a monkish school at 
Magdeburg, and then became what is called a "wandering- 
scholar" — that is , one who has no certain means of support, 
but chants in the church, and also in the streets for alms — at 
Eisenach, in Thiiringia. As a boy he was so earnest, studious 



What was accomplished, in Germany, by a Leader of the People? What 
events prepared the way for the Eeformation, and how? What helped to in- 
crease the knowledge of the Bible? What other aid followed? What may 
be said of the reign of Frederick III.? Why did the people endure tlie op- 
pressions of the Church of Rome? Wliat did tlie Church itself at last furnish ? 
Who was Martin Luther, when and where was he born? What of his early 
education? 



1508.] HE GOES TO WITTENBERG. 331 

and obedient, and gave such intellectual promise, that his 
parents stinted themselves in order to save enough from their 
scanty earnings to secure him a good education. But their 
circumstances gradually improved, and in 1501 they were able 
to send him to the University of Erfurt. Four years after- 
wards he was graduated with honor, and delivered a course of 
lectures upon Aristotle. 

Luther's father desired that he should study jurisprudence, 
but his thoughts were already turned towards religion. A 
copy of the Bible in the library of the University excited in 
him such a spiritual struggle that he became seriously ill; and 
he had barely recovered, when, while taking a walk with a 
fellow-student, the latter was struck dead by lightning, at his 
side. Then he determined to renounce the world, and in spite 
of the strong opposition of his father became a monk of the 
Augustine Order, in Erfurt. He prayed, fasted, and followed 
the most rigid discipline of the order, in the hope of obtaining 
peace of mind, but in vain: he was tormented by doubt and 
even by despair, until he turned again to the Bible. A zealous 
study of the exact language of the Gospels gave him not only 
a firm faith, but a peace and cheerfulness which was never 
afterwards disturbed by trials or dangers. 

The Elector, Frederick the Wise , of Saxony , had founded 
a new University at Wittenberg, and sought to obtain com- 
petent professors for it. The Vicar-General of the Augustine 
Order, to whom Luther's zeal and ability were known, recom- 
mended him for one of the places, and in 1508 he began to 
lecture in Wittenberg, first on Greek philosophy, and then 
upon theology. His success was so marked that in 1510 he 
was sent by the Order on a special mission to Rome, where 
the corruptions of the Church and the immorality of the Pope 
and Cardinals made a profound and lasting impression upon 
his mind. He returned to Germany, feeling as he never had 



How did his parents assist him? "When and where was he graduated? 
Upon what did he lecture? What was his father's plan? What effect had 
the study of the Bible upon him, and what followed? What did he become? 
How did he endeavor to obtain peace of miud? What gave him a firm faith? 
What was done by Frederick the Wise? What appointment did Luther re- 
ceive, and when? Upon what mission was he sent, and what effect had it? 



332 tetzel's sale of indulgences. [isi?. 

felt before, the necessity of a reformation of the Church. 
In 1512 he was made Doctor of Theology, and from that time 
forward his teachings, which were based upon liis own know- 
ledge of the Bible, began to bear abundant fruit. 

In the year 1517, the Pope, Leo X., famous both for his 
luxurious habits and his love of art, found that his income 
was not sufficient for his expenses, and determined to increase 
it by issuing a series of absolutions for all forms of crime, 
even perjury, bigamy and murder. The cost of pardon was 
graduated according to the nature of the sin. Albert, Arch- 
bishop of Mayence, bought the right of selling absolutions in 
Germany, and appointed as his agent a Dominican monk by 
the name of Tetzel. The latter began travelling through the 
country like a pedlar, publicly offering for sale the pardon of 
the Roman Church for all vaneties of crime. In some places 
he did an excellent business, since many evil men also pur- 
chased pardons in advance for the crimes they intended to 
commit: in other districts Tetzel only stirred up the abhor- 
rence of the people, and increased their burning desire to have 
such enormities suppressed. 

Only one man, however, dared to come out openly and 
condemn the Papal trade in sin and crime. This was Dr. Mar- 
tin Luther, who, on the 31st of October, 1517, nailed upon 
the door of the Church at Wittenberg a series of 95 theses, 
or theological declarations , the truth of which he offered to 
prove, against all adversaries. The substance of them was 
that the pardon of sins came only from God , and could only 
be purchased by true repentance; that to offer absolutions for 
sale, as Tetzel was doing, was an unchristian act, contrary to 
the genuine doctrines of the Church ; and that it could not, 
therefore, have been sanctioned by the Pope. Luther's object, 
at tliis time, was not to separate from the Church of Rome, 
but to reform and purify it. 



Wliat happened in 1512, and afterwards? IIow did Pope Leo X. try to in- 
crease his income, and when? Wlio acquired the right in Germany, and wlio 
was his agent? How did the latter act? How did his business succeed? 
Who condemned the measure? When, and in what manner, did he oppose 
it? What was the substance of Luther's theses? What was his object, at 
this time? 



iniS.J MEETING WITH CAJETANQS, 333 

The 95 theses, which were written in Latin, were immedia- 
tely translated, printed, and circulated throughout Germany. 
They were followed by replies, in which the action of the Pope 
was defended; Luther was styled a heretic, and threatened 
with the fate of Huss. He defended himself in pamphlets, 
which were eagerly read by the people ; and his followers in- 
creased so rapidly that Leo X., who had summoned him to 
Rome for trial, finally agreed that he should present himself 
before the Papal Legate, Cardinal Cajetanus, at Augsburg. 
The latter simply demanded that Luther should retract what 
he had preached and written, as being contrary to the Papal 
bulls; whereupon Luther, for the first time, was compelled to 
declare that '^the command of the Pope can only be respected 
as the voice of God , when it is not in conflict with the Holy 
Scriptures." The Cardinal afterwards said : " I will have no- 
thing more to do with that German beast, with the deep eyes 
and the whimsical speculations in his head!" and Luther said 
of him: *'He knew no more about the Word than a donkey 
knows of harp-playing." 

The Vicar-General of the Augustines was still Luther's 
friend, and, fearing that he was not safe in Augsburg, he had 
him let out of the city at daybreak, through a small door in 
the wall, and then supplied with a horse. Having reached 
Wittenberg, where he was surrounded with devoted followers, 
Frederick the Wise was next ordered to give him up. About 
the same time Leo X. declared that the practices assailed by 
Luther were doctrines of the Church, and must be accepted as 
such. Frederick began to waver; but the young Philip 
Melanchthon, Justus Jonas, and other distinguished men con- 
nected with the University exerted their influence, and the 
Elector finally refused the demand. The Emperor Maximilian, 
now near his end , sent a letter to the Pope , begging him to 
arrange the difficulty, and Leo X. commissioned his Nuncio, 
a Saxon nobleman named Karl von Miltitz , to meet Luther. 



How -were the theses received, and what followed tliem? How did Luther 
defend himself? What was Leo X.'s course? What was the demand of Caje- 
tanus? What was Luther's answer? Wliat did each say of the other? In 
what manner did Luther leave Augsburg? What did Leo X. declare? Who 
supported Luther, and how did Frederick the W'se act ? What did the Em- 
peror Maximilian ask, and what was done? 



334 BURNIXG THE POPE's BULL. [l520. 

The meeting took place at Altenburg in 1519: the Nuncio, 
who afterwards reported that he *'would not undertake to re- 
move Luther from Germany with the help of 10,000 soldiers, 
for he had found ten men for him where one was for the Pope" 
— was a mild and conciliatory man. He prayed Luther to 
pause, for he was destroying the peace of the Church, and suc- 
ceeded, by his persuasions, in inducing him to promise to keep 
silence, provided his antagonists remained silent also. 

This was merely a truce, and it was soon broken. Dr. Eck, 
one of the partisans of the Church , challenged Luther's friend 
and follower, Carlstadt, to a public discussion in Leipzig, and 
it was not long before Luther himself was compelled to take 
part in it. He declared his views with more clearness than 
ever, disregarding the outcry raised against him that he was 
in fellowship with the Bohemian heretics. The struggle, by 
this time, had affected all Germany, the middle class and smal- 
ler nobles being mostly on Luther's side, while the priests and 
reigning princes, with a few exceptions, were against him. In 
order to defend himself from misrepresentation and justify his 
course, he published two pamphlets, one called "An Appeal to 
the Emperor and Christian Nobles of Germany," and the 
other, "Concerning the Babylonian Captivity of the Church." 
These were read by tens of thousands, all over the country. 

Pope Leo X. immediately issued a bull, ordering all Luther's 
writings to be burned, excommunicating those who should be- 
lieve in them, and summoning Luther to Pome. This only in- 
creased the popular excitement in Luther's favor, and on the 
lOth of December, 1520, he took the step which made im- 
possible any reconciliation between himself and the Papal 
power. Accompanied by the Professors and students of the 
University, he had a fire kindled outside of one of the gates 
of Wittenberg, placed therein the books of canonical law and 
various writings in defence of the Pope, and then cast the Pa- 
pal bull into the flames, with the words: "As thou hast tor- 



"When and where did the meeting t-ake place? Wliat did the Papal Nuncio 
afterwards Say? What did he beg Luther to do, and with what success? 
Under what circumstances was Luther compelled to act? How was Germany 
divided, at this time? What did Luther publish, and why? What did Pope 
Leo X. next do? What effect had this? W^hen did Luther take the decisive 
step? 



1519. 1 CHAELES V. EMPEROR. 335 

mented the Lord and His Saints, so may eternal flame torment 
and consume thee !" This was the boldest declaration of war 
ever hurled at such an overwhelming authority ; but the courage 
of this one man soon communicated itself to the people. The 
knight, Ulric von Hutten, a distinguished scholar, who had 
been crowned as poet by the Emperor Maximihan, openly de- 
cLared fur Luther: the rebellious baron, Franz von Sickingen, 
offered him his castle as a safe place of refuge. Frederick the 
Wise was now his steadfast friend, and, although the dangers 
which beset him increased every day, his own faith in the 
righteousness of his cause only became firmer and purer. 

By this time the question of electing a successor to Maxi- 
milian had been settled. When the Diet came together at 
Frankfort, in June, 1519, two prominent candidates presented 
themselves, — king Francis L of France, and king Charles of 
Spain, Naples, Sicily and the Spanish possessions in the newly- 
discovered America. The former of these had no other right 
to the crown than could be purchased by the wagon-loads of 
money which he sent to Germany; the latter was the grand- 
son of Maximilian, and also represented, in his own person, 
Austria, Burgundy and the Netherlands. Again the old jea- 
lousy of so much power arose among the Electors, and they 
gave their votes to Frederick the Wise, of Saxony. He, how- 
ever, shrank from the burden of the imperial rule, at such a 
time, and declined to accept. Then Charles of Spain, who had 
ruined the prospects of Francis L by distributing 850,000 
gold florins among the members of the Diet, was elected 
without any further difficulty. The following year he was 
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, and became Karl V. in the list of 
German Emperors. Although he reigned 36 years, he always 
remained a foreigner: he never even learned to speak the 
German language fluently: his tastes and habits were Spanish, 
and his election, at such a crisis in the history of Germany, 



Describe what took place. "Who declared for Luther, and stood by him? 
When and where did the German Diet meet? Who were the candidates? 
What right had Francis I.? What was the position of Charles V.? What did 
the Electors do? What followed? What did the election cost Charles V.? 
Where was he crowned, and how named? 



33G LUTHER AT THE DIET OF WOEMS. [l521. 

was a crime from the effects of which the country did not re- 
cover for three hundred years afterwards. 

Luther wrote to the new Emperor, immediately after the 
election , begging that he might not be condemned unheard, 
and was so earnestly supported by Frederick the Wise, who 
had voted for Charles at the Diet, that the latter sent Luther 
a formal invitation to appear before him at Worms, where a 
new Diet had been called, specially to arrange the Imperial 
Court in the ten districts of the Empire, and to raise a military 
force to drive the French out of Lombardy, which Francis L 
had seized. Luther considered this opportunity "a call from 
God:" he set out from Wittenberg, and wherever he passed 
the people flocked together in great numbers to see him and 
hear him sjoeak. On approaching Worms, one of his friends 
tried to persuade him to turn back, but he answered : "Though 
there were as many devils in the city as tiles on the roofs, yet 
would I gol" He entered Worms in an open wagon, in his 
monk's dress, stared at by an immense concourse of people. 
The same evening he received visits from a number of princes 
and noblemen. 

On the 17th of April, 1521, Luther was conducted by the 
Marshal of the Empire to the City Hall, where the Diet was 
in session. As he was passing through the outer hall, the 
famous knight and general, George von Frundsberg, clapped 
him upon the shoulder, with the words: "Monk, monk! thou 
art in a strait, the like of which myself and many leaders, in 
the most desperate battles , have never known. But if thy 
thoughts are just, and thou art sure of thy cause, go on in 
God's name , and be of good cheer. He will not forsake thee !" 
Charles V. is reported to have said, when Luther entered the 
great hall: "That monk will never make a heretic of me!" 
After having acknowledged all his writings, Luther was called 
upon to retract them. He appeared to be somewhat embar- 



How was he qualified to reign in Germany ? "What did Luther write to 
Charles, and how was he answered? "Where was the Diet held, and for what 
purpose? What did Luther do? What happened to him on the way? What 
did he say, on approaching Worms? What was his reception there? When 
was he taken before the Diet? What happened in the outer hall? What did 
Cliarlea V. say? 



1:'»21.] 



LUTHER BEFOEE THE DIET. 



337 



rassed and undecided , either confused by the splendor of the 
Imperial Court, or shaken by the overwhelming responsibility 
resting upon him. He therefore asked a little time lor further 
consideration, and was allowed twenty-four hours. 







LUTHEE ON HIS WAY TO WOliMS. 



SCHLvH 



When he reappeared before the Diet, the next day, he was 
calm and firm. In a plain, yet most earnest address, delivered 
both in Latin and German so that all might understand , he 
explained the grounds of his belief, and closed with the solemn 



WLat was demanded of Luther, and how did ho act? 



o38 Luther's capture. [1521 

words: ^'Unless, therefore, I should be confuted by the testi« 
mony of the Holy Scriptures and by clear and convincing 
reasons, I cannot and will not retract, because there is neither 
wisdom nor safety in acting against conscience. Here I stand; 
I cannot do otherwise: God help me! Amen." 

Charles Y., without allowing the matter to be discussed 
by the Diet, immediately declared that Luther should be pro- 
secuted as a heretic, as soon as the remaining 21 days of his 
safe-conduct had expired. He was urged, by many of the par- 
tisans of Rome, not to respect the promise, but he answered: 
"1 do not mean to blush, like Sigismund." Luther's sincerity 
and courage confirmed the faith of his princely friends. Fre- 
derick the Wise and the Landgrave Phihp of Hesse walked by 
his side when he left the Diet, and Duke Eric of Brunswick 
sent him a jug of beer. His followers among the nobility 
greatly increased in numbers and enthusiasm. 

It was certain, however, that he would be in serious danger 
as soon as he had been formally outlawed by the Emperor. 
A plot, kept secret from all his friends, was formed for his 
safety, and successfully carried out during his return from 
Worms to Wittenberg. Luther travelled in an open wagon, 
with only one companion. On entering the Thiiringian Forest, 
he sent his escort in advance, and was soon afterwards, in a 
lonely glen, seized by four knights in armor and with closed 
vizors, placed upon a horse and carried away. The news 
spread like wild-fire over Germany that he had been mur- 
dered, and for nearly a year he was lost to the world. His 
writings were only read the more: the Papal bull and the Im- 
perial edict which ordered them to be burned were alike dis- 
regarded. Charles Y. went back to Spain immediately after 
the Diet of Worms , after having transferred the German pos- 
sessions of the house of Hapsburg to his younger brother, Fer- 
dinand, and the business of suppressing Luther's doctrines fell 
chiefly to the Archbishops of Mayence and Cologne, and the 
Pa^^al Legate. 



Dcseribe what happened the next clay. What did Charles V. decide? How 
did he answer the partisans of Rome? What princes stood by Luther? What 
plot was formed for his safety, and how was it carried out? Wliat was the 
belief in Germany? How did this affect Luther's writings? What was 
Charles V.'s course? 



1521.] 



THE WARTBUKG. 



339 



Luther, meanwhile, was in security in a castle called the 
Wartburg , on the summit of a mountain near Eisenach. He 







luthee's captuke afteb the diet of woems. 



was dressed in a knightly fashion, wore a helmet, breastplate 
and sword, allowed his beard to grow, and went by the name 
of ^'Squire George." But in the privacy of his own chamber 



Where was Luther hidden? How was he dressed and named? 



340 PEOGEESS OF THE EEFOEMATION. [l523. 

— all the furniture of which is preserved to this day, as when 
he lived in it — he worked zealously upon a translation of the 
New Testament into German. In the spring of 1522 he was 
disturbed in his labors by the report of new doctrines ^vhich 
were being preached in Wittenberg. His friend Carlstadt had 
joined a fanatical sect, called the Anabaptists, which advocated 
the abolition of the mass , the destruction of pictures and 
statues, and proclaimed the coming of God's Kingdom upon 
the Earth. 

The experience of the Bohemians showed Luther the neces- 
sity of union in his great work of reforming the Christian 
Church. Moreover, his enemies triumphantly pointed to the 
excesses of the Anabaptists as the natural result of his doc- 
trines. There was no time to be lost: in spite of the remon- 
strance of the Elector Frederick, he left the Wartburg, and 
rode alone, as a man-at-arms, to Wittenberg, where even Me- 
lanchthon did not recognize him on his arrival. He began 
preaching, with so much power and eloquence , that in a few 
days the new sect lost all the ground it had gained, and its 
followers were expelled from the city. The necessity of ar- 
ranging another and simpler form of divine service was made 
evident by these occurrences ; and after the publication of the 
New Testament in German, in September, 1522, Luther and 
Melanchthon united in the former task. 

The Reformation made such progress that by 1523, not 
only Saxony, Hesse and Brunswick had practically embraced 
it, but also the cities of Frankfort, Strasburg, Nuremberg and 
Magdeburg, the Augustine order of monks, a part of the Fran- 
ciscans, and quite a large number of priests. Now , however, 
a new and most serious trouble arose, partly from the preach- 
ing of the Anabaptists, headed by their so-called Prophet, 
Thomas Miinzer, and partly provoked by the oppressions 
which the common people had so long endured. In the sum- 
mer of 1524 the peasants of Wiirtemberg and Baden united, 



Upon what did he work? What event disturbed his seclusion, and when? 
What showed him the necessity of union? What did he do? How did lie 
reach Wittenberg? What was the effect of his preaching? When was the 
New Testament published? What did Luther and Melanchthon undertake? 
What progress had been made by the Keformation in 1523? 



1524.] 



THE PEASANTS WAR. 



341 



armed themselves, and issued a manifesto containing twelve 
articles. They demanded the right to choose their own priests ; 
the restriction of tithes to their harvests ; the abolition of feu- 
dal serfdom; the use of the forests ; the regulation of the privi- 




TUE 'VrART!^CEG. 



lege of the nobles to hunt and fish ; and protection , in certain 
other points, against the arbitrary power of the landed nobi- 
lity. They seemed to take it for granted that Luther would 
support them 5 but he, dreading a civil war and desirous to 
keep the religious reformation free from any political move- 



What did the peasants of Wurtemberg do, and when ? What was declared 
in their manifesto? 



342 THE peasants' war. [i525. 

ment, published a pamphlet condemning their revolt. At the 
same time he used his influence on their behalf, with the reigning 
priests and princes. 

The excitement, however, was too great to be subdued by 
admonitions of patience and forbearance. A dreadful war 
broke out in 1525: the army of 30,000 peasants ravaged a 
great part of Southern Germany, destroying castles and con- 
vents, and venting their rage in the most shocking barbarities, 
which were afterwards inflicted upon themselves, when they 
were finally defeated by the Count of Waldburg. The move- 
ment extended through Middle Germany even to Westphalia, 
and threatened to become general: some parts of Thiiringia 
were held for a short time by the peasants, and suff'ered ter- 
rible ravages. Another army of 8,000, headed by Thomas 
Miinzer, was cut to pieces near Miihlhausen, in Saxony, and 
by the end of the year 1525, the rebellion was completely 
suppressed. In this short time, some of the most interesting 
monuments of the Middle Ages , among them the grand castle 
of the Hohenstaufens, in Suabia, had been levelled to the earth ; 
whole provinces were laid waste; tens of thousands of men, 
women and children were put to the sword, and a serious 
check was given to the progress of the Reformation, through 
all Southern Germany. 

The stand which Luther had taken against the rebellion 
preserved the friendship of those princes who were w^ell- dis- 
posed towards him, but he took no part in the measures of 
defence against the Imperial and Papal power, which they 
were soon compelled to adopt. He devoted himself to the 
completion of his translation of the Bible, in which he was 
faithfully assisted by Melanchthon and others. In this great 
work he accomplished even more than a service to Christianity ; 
he created the modern German language. Before his time, 
there had been no tongue which was known and accepted 
throughout the whole Empire. The poets and minstrels of 
the Middle Ages wrote in Suabian ; other popular works were 



"What was liutlier's action in the matter? What happened in Southern 
Germany? Where, else, did the movement extend? When was the rebellion 
suppressed, and where? What had been done, in this short time? To what 
did Luther devote himself? What did he accomplish in this work? 



J530.] TBANSLATION OF THE BIBLE. 343 

in Low-Saxon , Franconian or Alsatian. The dialect of Hol- 
land and Flanders had so changed that it was hardly under- 
stood in Germany; that of Brandenburg and the Baltic pro- 
vinces had no literature as yet, and the learned or scientific 
works of the time were written in Latin. 

No one before Luther saw that the simplest and most ex- 
pressive qualities of the German language must be sought fof 
in the mouths of the people. With all his scholarship, he 
never used the theological style of writing, but endeavored to 
express himself so that he could be clearly understood by all 
men. In translating the Old Testament, he took extraordinary 
pains to find words and phrases as simple and strong as those 
of the Hebrew writers. He frequented the market-place , the 
merry-making, the house of birth, marriage or death , to learn 
how the common people expressed themselves in all the cir- 
cumstances of life. He enlisted his friends in the same service, 
begging them to note down for him any peculiar, characteristic 
phrase ; ''for," said he, *'I cannot use the words heard in castles 
and courts." Not a sentence of the Bible was translated until 
he had found the best and clearest German expression for it. 
He wrote, in 1530: "I have exerted myself, in translating, to 
give pure and clear German. And it has verily happened, 
that we have sought and questioned a fortnight, three, four 
weeks, for a single word, and yet it was not always found. In 
Job, we so labored, Philip Melanchthon, Aurogallus and I, 
that in four. days we sometimes barely finished three lines." 

Pope Leo X. died in 1521, and was succeeded by Adrian VI., 
the last German w^io wore the Papal crown. He admitted 
many of the corruptions of the Roman Church, and seemed in- 
clined to reform them; but he only lived two years, and his 
successor was Clement YIL, a nephew of Leo. The latter in- 
duced Ferdinand of Austria, the Dukes of Bavaria and several 
Bishops to unite in a league for suppressing the spread of 
Luther's doctrines. Thereupon the Elector John of Saxony 



What dialects were used before his tiiTie? In what language were scientific 
works written? What was Luther's manner of writing? What was his prac- 
tice, in translating the Old Testament? What did he ask of his friends, and 
why? What did he write about his translation? Who succeeded to Pope 
Leo X., when and what was his character? Who followed him? What was 
Clement VII.'s first measure? 



344 Luther's maeeiage. [1525. 

(Frederick the Wise having died in 1525), Philip of Ilesse. 
Albert of Brandenburg, the Dukes of Brunswick and Mecklen- 
burg, the Counts of Mansfeld and Anhalt and the city of Mag- 
deburg formed a counter-alliance at Torgau, in 1526. At the 
Diet held in Speyer the same year, the party of the Reforma- 
tion was so strong that no decree against it could be passed* 
the question was left free. 

The organization of the Christian Church which was by 
this time adopted in Saxony, soon spread over all Northern 
Germany. Its principal features were: the abolition of the 
monastic orders and of priestly celibacy; divine service in 
the language of the country; the distribution of the Bible, in 
German, to all persons ; the communion, in both forms, for lay- 
men ; and the instruction of the people and their children in the 
truths of Christianity. The former possessions of the Church 
were given up to the State, and Luther, against Melanchthon's 
advice, even insisted on uniting the episcopal authority with the 
political, in the person of the reigning prince. He set the 
example of giving up priestly celibacy, by marrying, in 1525, 
Catharine von Bora, a nun of a noble family. This step created 
a great sensation; even many of Luther's friends condemned 
his course, but he declared that he was right, and he was re- 
warded by 21 years of unalloyed domestic happiness. 

The Emperor Charles Y., during all these events , was ab- 
sent from Germany. His first war with France was brought 
to a conclusion by the battle of Pavia, in February, 1525, 
when Francis L was obliged to surrender, and was sent as a 
prisoner to Madrid. But having purchased his freedom , the 
following year, by giving up his claims to Italy, Burgundy and 
Flanders, he no sooner returned to France than he recommen- 
ced the war, — this time in union with Pope Clement VII., who 
was jealous of the Emperor's increasing power in Italy. The 
old knight George von Frundsberg and the Constable de 



Who formed a counter-alliance, and when? What was done at the Diet 
of Speyer? What were the principal features of the new Church? What was 
done with tlie former Church possessions? On whom was the episcopal 
authority conferred? Whom did Luther marry? How was this step regarded? 
What was the result of Charles V.'s war with France? What did Francis L 
do, after purchasing his freedom? 



1529, 



THE NAME OF ^^PEOTESTANTS." 345 



Bourbon — a member of the royal family of France, who had 
gone over to Charles Y.'s side, — then united their forces, which 
were principally German, and marched upon Rome. The city 
was taken by storm, in 1527, terribly ravaged and the Pope 
made prisoner. Charles V. pretended not to have known of or 
authorized this movement; he liberated the Pope, who pro- 
mised, in return, to call a Council for the Reformation of the 
Church. The war continued, however, — Venice, Genoa and 
England being also involved — until 1529, when it was ter- 
minated by the Peace of Cambray. 

Charles V. and the Pope then came to an understanding, 
in virtue of which the former was crowned king of Lombardy 
and Emperor of Rome in Bologna, in 1530, and bound him- 
self to extirpate the doctrines of Luther in Germany. In 
Austria, Bavaria and \yurtemberg, in fact, the persecution had 
already commenced: many persons had been hanged or burned 
at the stake for professing the new doctrines. Ferdinand of 
Austria, who had meanwhile succeeded to the crowns of Bo- 
hemia and Hungary, was compelled to call a Diet at Speyer, in 
1529, to take measures against the Turks, then victorious in 
Transylvania and a great part of Hungary; a majority of Ca- 
tholics was present, and they passed a decree repeating the 
outlawry of Luther and his doctrines by the Diet of Worms. 
Seven reigning princes, headed by Saxony, Brandenburg and 
Hesse, and 15 imperial cities, joined in a solemn protest against 
this measure, asserting that the points in dispute could only 
be settled by a universal Council, called for the purpose. From 
that day, the name of "Protestants" was given to both the 
followers of Lather, and the Swiss Reformers, under the lead of 
Zwingli. 

The history of the Reformation in Switzerland cannot be 
here given. It will be enough to say that Zwingli, who was 
born in the Canton of St. Gall, in 1484, resembled Luther in 
his purity of character, his earnest devotion to study, and the 



When was Rome taken, and by whom? What was Charles Y.'s course? 
By whom was the war continued, when was it terminated, and how? "What 
was the understanding between Charles V. and the Pope? What had been 
done in Austria, Bavaria and Wiirtemberg? When did Ferdinand of Austria 
Call a Diet, and why? What decree was passed? Who made a protest against 
it? What name was thenceforth given to the Eeformers? 



3-40 MEETING OF LUTHEB AND ZWINGLI. [l529. 

circumstance that his ideas of religious reform were derived 
from an intimate knowledge of the Bible. It was the i:)as- 
sionate desire of Philip of Hesse that both branches of the 
Protestants should become united, in order to be so much the 
stronger to meet the dangers which all felt were coming. 
Luther, who labored and prayed to prevent the struggle from 
becoming political, and who had opposed even the league of 
the Protestant princes at Torgau, in 1526, was with difficulty 
induced to meet Zwingli. He was still busy with his transla- 
tion of the Bible , with the preparation of a Catechism for the 
people, a collection of hymns to be used in worship, and other 
works necessary to the complete organization of the Protestant 
Church. 

The meeting betwesen the two Reformers finally took place 
in Marburg, in 1529. Melanchthon, Jonas, and many other 
distinguished men were present: both Luther and Zwingli 
fully and freely compared their doctrines, but, although they 
were united on all essential points, they differed in regard to 
the nature of the Eucharist, and Luther positively refused to 
give way, or even to make common cause with the Swiss Pro- 
testants. This was one of several instances, wherein the great 
Reformer injured his cause through his lack of wisdom and 
tolerance : in small things, as in great, he was inflexible. 

So matters stood, in the beginning of 1530, when Charles V. 
returned to Germany , after an absence of nine years. He 
established liis court at Innsbruck, and summoned a Diet to 
meet at Augsburg, in April, but it was not opened until the 
20tli of June. Melanchthon, with many other Protestant pro- 
fessors and clergymen, was present: Luther, being under the 
ban of the Empire, remained in Coburg, where he wrote his 
grand hymn, "Our Lord, He is a Tower of Strength." The 
Protestant princes and cities united in signing a Confession of 
Faith, which had been very carefully drawn up by Melanch- 



When was Zwingli born, and what was he? "What did Philip of Hesse 
desire, and why? On what was Luther employed, at this time? When and 
where did the meeting between Lutlier and Zwingli take place? What was 
the result? On what one point did they diiTer? When did Oharlcs V. return 
to Germany? When and where did he call a Diet? Who were present? 
Where was Luther? 



1530.] THE AUGSBUKa CONFESSION. 347 

tlion, and the Emperor was obliged to consent that it should 
be read before the Diet. He ordered, however, that the read- 
ing should take place, not in the great hall where the sessions 
were held, but in the Bishop's chapel, and at a very early 
hour in the morning. The object of this arrangement was to 
prevent any but the members of the Diet from hearing the 
document. 

But the weather was intensely warm, and it was necessary 
to open the windows ; the Saxon Chancellor, Dr. Bayer , read 
the Confession in such a loud, clear voice, that a thousand or 
more persons, gathered on the outside of the Chapel, were able 
to hear every word. The principles asserted were: — That 
men are justified by faith alone; that an assembly of true be- 
lievers constitutes the Church ; that i^ is not necessary that 
forms and ceremonies should be everywhere the same; that 
preaching, the sacraments, and infant baptism, are necessary; 
that Christ is really present in the sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper, which should be administered to the congregation in 
both forms; that monastic vows, fasting, pilgrimages and the 
invocation of saints are useless, and that priests must be 
allowed to marry. After the Confession had been read, many- 
persons were heard to exclaim: "It is reasonable that the 
abuses of the Church should be corrected: the Lutherans are 
right, for our spiritual lords have carried it with too high a 
hand." The general impression was favorable to the Pro- 
testants, and the princes who had signed the Confession de- 
termined that they would maintain it at all hazards. This 
"Augsburg Confession," as it was thenceforth called , was the 
foundation of the Lutheran Church throughout Germany. 

The Emperor ordered a refutation of the Protestant doc- 
trines to be prepared by the Catholic theologians who were 
present, but refused to furnish a copy to the Protestants and 
prohibited them from making any reply. He declared that 
the latter must instantly return to the Roman Church, the 



"What did the Protestant princes present? By whom was it drawn up? 
How did Charles V. order it to be read, and for what reason? How was it 
read, and who heard it? What were the prijciples asserted? What was said 
by those who heard the Confession? What impression did it make? What 
did the Augsburg Confession become? What course did the Emperor take? 



o 



48 THE LEAGUE OF SCHMALKALDEN. [l531 



abuses of whicli would be corrected by himself and the Pope. 
Thus the breach was made permanent between Rome and more 
than half of Germany. Charles V. procured the election of his 
brother Ferdinand to the crown of Germany, although Ba- 
varia united with the Protestant princes in voting against him. 

The Imperial Courts in the ten districts were now com- 
posed entirely of Catholics , and they were ordered to enforce 
the suppression of Protestant worship. Thereupon the Pro- 
testant princes and delegates from the cities met at the little 
town of Schmalkalden, in Thiiringia, and on the 29th of 
March, 1531, bound themselves to unite, for the space of six 
years, in resisting the Imperial decree. Evea Luther, much 
as he dreaded a religious war, could not oppose this move- 
ment. The League o^Schmalkalden , as it is called, repre- 
sented so much military strength, that king Ferdinand became 
alarmed and advised a more conciliatory course towards the 
Protestants. Sultan Solyman of Turkey, who had conquered 
all Hungary, was marching upon Vienna with an immense 
army, and openly boasted that he would subdue Germany. 

It thus became impossible for Charles Y. either to suppress 
the Protestants at this time, or to repel the Turkish invasion 
without their help. He was compelled to call a new Diet, 
which met at Nuremberg, and in August, 1532, concluded a 
Keligious Peace , both parties agreeing - to refrain from all 
hostilities until a General Council of the Church should be cal- 
led. Then the Protestants contributed their share of troops 
to the Imperial army , which soon amounted to 80,000 men, 
commanded by the famous general, Sebastian Schertlin, him- 
self a Protestant. The Turks were defeated everywhere ; the 
siege of Vienna was raised , and the whole of Hungary might 
have been reconquered, but for Ferdinand's unpopularity 
among the Catholic princes. 



What did he decide, in regard to the Proteitants ? What breach was then 
made? What did Charles V. procure from the Diet? How were the Imperial 
Courts composed, and what was their action? Where and when did the 
Protestants meet? How did they bind themselves? What effect had tho 
League of Schmalkalden? Who, then, was marching upon Vienna? What 
was Charles V.'s dilemma? When and where did he call a Diet, and what 
wafl done? What Imperial arjny was raised? What was the result? 



1534.] GROWTH OF THE REFORMATIOX. 349 

Other cities and smaller principalities joined the League 
of Scliraalkalden, the power of which increased from year to 
year. The Religious Peace of Nuremberg greatly favored the 
spread of the Reformation , although it was not very strictly 
observed by either side. In 1534 Wiirtemberg, which was 
then held by Ferdinand of Austria , was conquered by Philip 
of Hesse, who reinstated the exiled Duke, Ulric. The latter 
became a Protestant, and thus Wiirtemberg was added to the 
League. Charles V. would certainly have interfered in this 
case, but he had left Germany for another nine years' absence, 
and was just then engaged in a war w^ith Tunis. The reigning 
princes of Brandenburg and Ducal Saxony (Thiiringia) , who 
had been enemies of the Reformation, died and were succeeded 
by Protestant sons: in 1537 the League of Schmalkalden was 
renewed for ten years more, and the so-called "holy alliances," 
which were attempted against it by Bavaria and the Arch- 
bishops of Mayence and Salzburg, were of no avail. The Pro- 
testant faith continued to spread, not only in Germany, but 
also in Denmark, Sweden, Holland and England. The first 
of these countries even became a member of the Schmalkalden 
League, in 1538. 

Out of the "Freedom of the Gospel," which was the first 
watch-word of the Reformers, smaller sects continued to arise, 
notwithstanding they met with almost as much opposition 
from the Protestants as the Catholics. The Anabaptists ob- 
tained possession of the city of Miinster in 1534, and held it 
for more than a year, under the government of a Dutch tailor, 
named John of Leyden, who had himself crowned king of Zion, 
introduced polygamy, and cut off the heads of all who resisted 
his decrees. When the Bishop of Miinster finally took the 
city, John of Leyden and two of his associates were tortured 
to death , and their bodies suspended in iron cages over the 
door of the cathedral. About the same time Simon Menno, a 



What was the effect of the Religious Peace of Nuremberg? What change 
took place in Wiirtemberg? What prevented Charles V. from interfering? Hov 
were Brandenburg and Saxony changed? When, and for what time, was the 
League renewed? What alliances were made against it? What other countries 
embraced the Protestant faith? Describe what happened at Muuster? What 
was the end of it ? 



350 WAR WITH FBANCE. [l544. 

native of Friesland , founded a quiet and peaceful sect wliicb 
was named, after him, the Mennonites, and which still exists, 
both in Germany and the United States. 

While, therefore, Charles V. was carrying on his wars, 
alternately with the Barbary States, and with Francis I. of 
France, the foundations of the Protestant Church, in spite of 
all divisions and disturbances , were permanently laid in Ger- 
many. Although he had been brilliantly successful in Tunis, 
in 1535, he failed so completely before xilgiers, in 1541, that 
Francis I. was emboldened to make another attempt, in al- 
liance with Sultan Solj^man of Turkey, Denmark and Sweden. 
So formidable was the danger that the Emperor was again 
compelled to seek the assistance of the German Protestants, 
and even of England. He returned to Germany for the second 
time and called a Diet to meet in Speyer, which renewed the 
Religious Peace of Nuremberg, with the assurance that Pro- 
testants should have equal rights before the Imperial courts, 
and that they would be left free until the meeting of a Free 
Council of the Church. 

Having obtained an army of 40,000 men by these conces- 
sions, Charles Y. marched into France, captured a number of 
fortresses, and had reached Soissons on his way to Paris, when 
Francis I. acknowledged himself defeated and begged for peace. 
In the Treaty of Crespy, in 1544, he gave up his claim to 
Lombardy, Naples, Flanders and Artois, the Emperor gave 
him a part of Burgundy, and both united in a league against 
the Turks and Protestants, the allies of one and the other. 
In order, however, to preserve some appearance of fidelity to 
his solemn pledges, the Emperor finally prevailed upon the 
Pope, Paul III., to order an CEcumencial Council. It was just 
130 years since the Roman Church had promised to reform 
itself. The delay had given rise to the Protestant Reforma- 
tion, which was now so powerful that only a just and conci- 
liatory course on the part of Rome could settle the difficulty. 



What other sect was founded? What was Charles V.'s history, during this 
time? From whom did he seek aid? What was done at the Diet which he 
caU^d ? What was his carapaiga in France? What treaty did he make, and 
w)ven? What did he persuade the Pope to do? How long had the Beform 
been delayed, and to what had it given rise? 



1545.] 



THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 



351 



Instead of this, the Council was summoned to meet at Trent, 
in the Italian part of the Tyrol, the Pope reserved the govern- 
ment of it for himself, and the Protestants , although invited 
to attend, were thus expected to acknowledge his authority. 
They unanimously declared, therefore, that they would not be 
bound by its decrees. Even Luther, who had ardently hoped 

united under a purer 



to see all Christians again 



organization 




liUTHEB'S HOUSE IN WITTENBEEG. 

of the Church, saw that a reconciliation was impossible, and 
published a pamphlet entitled : "The Roman Papacy Founded 
by the Devil." 

The publication of the complete translation of the Bible in 
1534 was not the end of Luther's labors. His leadership in 
the great work of Reformation was acknowledged by all , and 
he was consulted by princes and clergymen, by scholars and 
jurists, even by the common people. He never relaxed in his 



How was tho Council arranged, and what was expected of the Protestants? 
What was their course? What did Luther perceive, and do? When was hig 
translation of the Bible published? 
16 



*^52 LUTHER's last days. [i546. 



O 



efforts to preserve peace, not only among the Protestant prin- 
ces , who could not yet overcome their old habit of asserting 
an independent authority, but also between Protestants and 
CathoUcs. Yet he could hardly help feeling that, with such 
a form of government, and such an Emperor, as Germany then 
possessed, peace was impossible: he only prayed that it might 
last wliile he lived. 

Luther's powerful constitution gradually broke down under 
the weight of his labors and anxieties. He became subject to 
attacks^of bodily suffering, followed by great depression of 
mind. Nevertheless , the consciousness of having in a great 
measure performed the work which he had been called upon 
to do , kept up his faith , and he was accustomed to declare 
that he had been made ''a chosen weapon of God , known in 
Heaven and Hell, as well as upon the earth." In January, 
1546, he was summoned to Eisleben, the place of his birth, 
by the Counts of Mansfeld, who begged him to act as arbitra- 
tor between them in a question of inheritance. Although much 
exhausted by the fatigues of the winter-journey, he settled the 
dispute, and preached four times to the people. His last letter 
to his wife, written on the 14th of February, is full of courage, 
cheerfulness and tenderness. 

Two days afterwards, his strength began to fail. His 
friend , Dr. Jonas , was in Eisleben at the time , and Luther 
forced'himself to sit at the table with him and with his own 
two sons ; but it was noticed that he spoke only of the future 
life, and with an unusual earnestness and solemnity. The 
sam'e evening it became evident to all that his end was rapidly 
approaching: he grew weaker from hour to hour, and occasion- 
ally repeated passages from the Bible, in German and Latin. 
After midnight he seemed to revive a little: Dr. Jonas, the 
Countess of°Mansfeld, the pastor of the church at Eisleben, 
and his sons, stood near his bed. Then Jonas said: '^Beloved 
Father, do you acknowledge Christ, the son of God, our Re- 
deemer?" Luther answered "Yes," in a strong and clear voice; 



What was the character of his later work? What bodily sufferings came 
upon liim? What declr^ ration did lie make? When was he called to Eisleben 
aiid why? What did he do there? What was his frame of mind? 



1546.] Luther's funeral 353 

then, folding his hands, he drew one deep sigh and died, be- 
tween two and three o'clock on the morning of the 17th of 
February. 

After solemn services in the church at Eisleben , the body 
was removed on its way to Wittenberg. In every village 
through which the procession passed, the bells were tolled, 
and the people flocked together from all the surrounding 
country. The population of Halle, men and women, came out 
of the city with loud cries and lamentations , and the throng 
was so great that it was two hours before the coffin could be 
placed in the church. *'Here," says an eyewitness of the scene, 
"we endeavored to raise the funeral psalm, De profiindls 
("Out of the depths have I cried unto thee"); but so heavy 
was our grief that the words were rather wept than sung.'* 
On the 2 2d of February the remains of the great Reformer 
were given to the earth at Wittenberg, with all the honors 
which the people, the authorities and the University could 
render. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

FROM Luther's death to the end of the 16th century. 

(1546—1600.) 

Attempt to Suppress the Protestants. — Treachery of Maurice of Saxony. — 
Defeat and Capture of the Elector, John Erederick. — Philip of Hesse Im- 
prisoned. — Tyranny of Charles V. — The Augsburg Interim.— Maurice of 
Saxony turns against Charles V. — The Treaty of Passau.— War with France. 
—The Religious Peace of Augsburg. — The Jesuits. — Abdication of Charles V. 
— Ferdinand of Austria becomes Emperor. — End of the Council of Trent. 
— Protestantism in Germany. — Weakness of the Empire. — Loss of the 
Baltic Provinces. — Maximilian II. Emperor. — His Tolerance. — The Last 
Private Feud. — Revolt of the Netherlands. — Death of Maximilian II. — 
Rudolf II.'s Character. — Persecution of Protestants. — Condition of Germany 
at the End of the 16th Century. 

The woes which the German Electors brought upon the 
country, when they gave the crown to a Spaniard because he 



Describe his last hours. When did he die? What was the character of 
the funeral procession? What happened at Halle? When and where was he 
buried? 



35i HOSTILITY TO THE PEOTESTANTS. [l546. 

was a Hapsburg, were only commencing wlien Luther died. 
Charles V. had just enough German blood in him to enable 
him to deceive the German people ; he had no iijterest in them 
further than the power they gave to his personal rule; he 
used Germany to build up the strength of Spain, and then 
trampled it under his feet. 

The Council of Trent, which was composed almost entirely 
of Spanish and Italian prelates, followed the instructions of the 
Pope and declared that the traditions of the Roman Church 
were of equal authority with the Bible. This made a recon- 
ciliation with the Protestants impossible , which was just what 
the Pope desired: his plan was to put them down by main 
force. In fact, if the spirit of the Protestant faith had not al- 
ready entered into the lives of the mass of the people, the 
Eeformation might have been lost through the hesitation of 
some princes and the treachery of another. The Schmalkalden 
League was at this time weakened by personal quarrels among 
its members; yet it was still able to raise an army of 40,000 
men, which was placed under the command of Sebastian 
Schertlin. Charles Y. had a very small force with him at 
Ratisbon; the troops he had summoned from Flanders and 
Italy had not arrived; and an energetic movement by the 
Protestants could not have failed to be successful. 

But the two chiefs of the Schmalkalden League, John 
Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse, showed a timidity 
almost amounting to cowardice, in this emergency. In spite 
of Schertlin's entreaties, they refused to allow him to move, 
fearing, as they alleged, to invade the neutrality of Bavaria, 
or to excite Ferdinand of Austria against them. For months 
they compelled their army to wait, while the Emperor was 
constantly receiving reinforcements, among them 12,000 Ita- 
lian troops furnished by the Pope. Then, when they were 
absolutely forced to act, a new and unexpected danger ren- 
dered them powerless. Maurice, Duke of Saxony (of the 



"What was Charles V.'s course towards Germany? What was done by the 
Council of Trent? What was the Pope's plan? What prevented the Relor- 
mation from failing? In what condition was the Schmalkalden League? Wliat 
was the situation of Charles V.? Who were the leaders of the League, and 
how did they act? What ordcra did they give to Schertlin? How waa 
Cliarles V. strengthened? 



1547.] JOHN FEEDERICK OF SAXONY CAPTUEED. 355 

younger line), suddenly abjured the Protestant faith, declared 
for Charles V., and took possession of the territory of Electo- 
ral Saxony, belonging to his cousin, John Frederick. The 
latter hastened home with his own portion of the army, and 
defeated and expelled Maurice, it is true, but in doing so, gave 
up the field to the Emperor. Duke Ulric of Wiirtemberg first 
humbly submitted to the latter, then Ulm, Augsburg, Stras- 
burg, and other cities : Schertlin was not left with troops enough 
to resist, and the Imperial and Catholic power was restored 
throughout Southern Germany, without a struggle. 

In the spring of 1547, Charles V. marched into Northern 
Germany, surprised and defeated John Frederick of Saxony at 
Miihlberg on the Elbe, and took him prisoner. The Elector 
was so enormously stout and heavy that he could only mount 
his horse by the use of a ladder; so the Emperor's Spanish 
cavalry easily overtook him in his flight. Charles Y. now 
showed himself in his true character: he appointed the fierce 
Duke of Alba President of a Court which tried John Frederick 
and condemned him to death. The other German princes pro- 
tested so earnestly against this sentence that it was not carried 
out, but John Frederick was compelled to give up the greater 
part of Saxony to the traitor Maurice, and be content with 
Thiiringia or Ducal Saxony — the territory embraced in the 
present duchies of Meiningen, Gotha, Weimar and Altenburg. 
He steadfastly refused, however, to submit to the decrees of 
the Council of Trent, and remained firm in the Protestant 
faith, during the five years of imprisonment which followed. 

His wife, the Duchess Sibylla, heroically defended Witten- 
berg against the Emperor, but when John Frederick had been 
despoiled of his territory, she could no longer hold the city, 
which was surrendered. Charles Y. was urged by Alba and 
others to burn Luther's body and scatter the ashes, as those 
of a heretic; but he answered, like a man: "I wage no war 
against the dead." Herein he showed the better side of his 



What sudflen act of treachery occurred? What was John Frederick of 
Saxony compeUed to do? "What advantages did Charles V. gain? What did 
he do in Northern Germany, and when ? How was John Frederick treated 
Dy him? What was he forced to give up, and what accept? What stand did 
he take? 



356 TYKANXY OF CHARLES V. [l54S. 

nature, althoiigli only for a moment. Philip of Hesse was not 
strong enough to resist, alone, and finally, persuaded by his 
son-in-law, Maurice of Saxony, he promised to beg the Em- 
peror's pardon on his knees, to destroy all his fortresses ex- 
cept Cassel, and to pay a fine of 150,000 gold florins, on con- 
dition that he should be allowed to retain his princely rights. 
These were Charles V.'s own conditioas; but when Philip, 
kneeling before him, happened (or seemed) to smile while his 
application for pardon w^as being read, the Emperor cried out: 
''Wait, ril teach you to laugh!" Breaking his solemn word 
without scruple, he sent Philip instantly to prison, and the 
latter was kept for years in close confinement, both in Ger- 
many and Flanders. 

Charles Y. was now also master of Northern Germany, 
except the city of Magdeburg, which was strongly fortified, 
and refused to surrender. He entrusted the siege of the place 
to Maurice of Saxony, and returned to Bavaria, in order to be 
nearer Italy. He had at last become the arbitrary ruler of 
all Germany: he had not only violated his word in dealing 
with the princes, but defied the Diet in subjecting them by 
the aid of foreign soldiers. His court, his commanders, liis 
prelates, were Spaniards, who, as they passed through the 
German States, abused and insulted the people wuth per- 
fect imj^unity. The princes were now reaping only what they 
themselves had sown; but the mass of the people, who had 
had no voice in the election, — who saw their few rights des- 
pised and their faith threatened with suppression — sufi'ered 
terribly during this time. 

In May, 1548, the Emperor proclaimed what was called 
the ^'Augsburg Interim," which allowed the communion in both 
forms and the marriage of priests to the Protestants, but in- 
sisted that all the other forms and ceremonies of the Catholic 
Church should be observed, until the Council should pronounce 
its final judgment. Tliis latter body had removed from Trent 



"What happened at the taking of Wittenberg? "What conditions was Philip 
of Hesse compelled to accept? How was he then treated by Charles V.? 
What was now the Emperor's power? To whom did he entrust the siege of 
Magdeburg? How liad he acted towards the German princes ? Who were his 
agents, and how did they act? What did he next proclaim, w^hen, and what 
was its character? 



1551.] 



THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 



357 



tS?!^ 



to Bologna, in spite of the Emperor's remonstrance, and it 
did not meet again at Trent until 1551, after the death of 
Pope Paul III. There was, in fact, almost as much confusion 
in the Church as in 
political afiairs. A 
number of intelligent, 
zealous prelates de- 
sired a correction of 
the former abuses, 
and they were un- 
doubtedly supported 
by the Emperor him- 
self; but the Pope 
with the French and 
Spanish cardinals and 
bishops, controlled a 
majority of the votes 
of the Council, and 
thus postponed its 
action from year to 
year. 

The acceptance of 
the "Interim" was 
resisted both by Ca- 
tholics and Protes- 
tants. Charles V. 
used all his arts, — 
persuasion, threats, 
armed force , — and 
succeeded for a short 
time in compelling a 
sort of external ob- 
servance of its pro- 
visions. His ambition, 
now, was to have his son Philip chosen by the Diet as his 
successor, notwithstanding that Ferdinand of Austria had been 




CHARLES V. 



"What had been done by the Council of Trent? What was desired by some 
of the prelates? Who supported, and who opposed them? How was the 
*Augsburg Interim" received? 



358 MAURICE OF saxony's MOYEMENT. [i552, 

elected king in 1530, and had governed during his brother's 
long absence from Germany. The Protestant Electors, 
conquered as they were, and abject as many of them had 
seemed, were not ready to comply; Ferdinand's jealousy 
was aroused, and the question was in suspense when a sudden 
and startling event changed the whole face of affairs. 

Maurice of Saxony had been besieging Magdeburg for a 
year, in the Emperor's name. The city was well-provisioned, 
admirably defended, and the people answered every threat 
with defiance and ridicule. Maurice grew tired of his inglo- 
rious position, sensitive to the name of "Traitor" which was 
everywhere hurled against him, and indignant at the conti- 
nued imprisonment of Philip of Hesse. He made a secret 
treaty with Henry H. of France, to whom he promised Lor- 
raine, including the cities of Toul, Yerdun and Metz in return 
for his assistance; and then, in the spring of 1552, before his 
plans could be divined, marched with all speed against the 
Emperor, who was holding his court in Innsbruck. The latter 
attempted to escape to Flanders, but Maurice had already 
seized the mountain-passes. Nothing but speedy flight across 
the Alps, in night and storm, attended only by a few followers, 
saved Charles V. from capture. The Council of Trent broke 
up and fled in terror; John Frederick of Saxony and Philip 
of Hesse were freed from their long confinement, and the 
Protestant cause gained at one blow all the ground it 
had lost. 

Maurice returned to Passau, on the Danube, where Ferdi- 
nand of Austria united with him in calling a Diet of the Ger- 
man Electors. The latter, bishops as well as princes, admitted 
that the Protestants could be no longer suppressed by force, 
and agreed to establish a religious peace, independent of any 
action of the Pope and Council. The "Treaty of Passau," as 
it was called, allowed freedom of worship to all who accepted 
the Augsburg Confession, and postponed other questions to 



What did Charles V. try to have done? By whom was he opposed? How 
had Magdeburg resisted the siege? What was the temper of Maurice of 
Saxony? What secret treaty did he make? How act afterwards? How did 
Charles V. escape? What were the consequences of this movement? Wliat 
Diet was held, and upon wliat did it agree? 



1553.J ALBEET OF BEANDENBUKG's KAID. 359 

the decision of a German Diet. The Eraperor at first refused 
to subscribe to the treaty, but when Maurice began to renev/ 
hostilities, there was no other course left. The French in 
Lorraine and the Turks in Hungary were making rapid ad- 
vances, and it was no time to assert his lost despotism over 
the Empire. 

With the troops which the princes now agreed to furnish, 
the Emperor marched into France, and in October, 1552, ar- 
rived before Metz, which he besieged until the following Janu- 
ary. Then, with his army greatly reduced by sickness and 
hardship, he raised the siege and marched away, to continue 
the war in other quarters. But it was four years before the 
quarrel with France came to an end, and during this time the 
Protestant States of Germany had nothing to fear from the 
Imperial power. The Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, who 
was on the Emperor's side, attempted to carry fire and sword 
through their territories, in order to pay himself for his mili- 
taiy services. After wasting, plundering and committing 
shocking barbarities in Saxony and Franconia, he was de- 
feated by Maurice, in July, 1553. The latter fell in the mo- 
ment of victory, giving his life in expiation of his former 
apostasy. The greater part of Saxony, nevertheless, has re- 
mained in the bands of his descendants to this day, while the 
descendants of John Frederick, although representing the elder 
line, possess only the little principalities of Thiiringia, to each 
of which the Saxon name is attached, as Saxe-Weimar, Saxe- 
Gotha, &c. 

Charles V., who saw his ambitious plans for the govern- 
ment of the world faihng everywhere, and whose bodily 
strength was failing also, left Germany in disgust, commission- 
ing his brother Ferdinand to call a Diet, in accordance with 
the stipulations of the Treaty of Passau. The Diet met at 
Augsburg, and in spite of the violent opposition of the Papal 
Legate, on the 25th of September, 1555, concluded the treaty 



Wliat was the Treaty of Passau? "What circumstances compelled the Em- 
peror to accept it? What did he do in France, and how succeed? How long 
did the war last? Who began to ravage the Protestaat States? When and 
by whom was he defeated? In whose hands did Saxony remain? What did 
Charles V. next do ? 



360 THE EELiaiOUS PEACE OP AUGSBURQ. [l556. 

of Religious Peace wliich finally gave rest to Germany. The 
Protestants who followed the Augsburg Confession received 
religious freedom, perfect equality before the law, and the 
undisturbed possession of the Church property which had 
fallen into their hands. In other respects their privileges were 
not equal. By a clause called the ^'spiritual reservation," it 
was ordered that when a Catholic Bishop or Abbot became 
Protestant he should give up land and title in order that the 
Church might lose none of its possessions. The rights and con- 
sciences of the people were so little considered that they were 
not allowed to change their faith unless the ruling prince 
changed his. The monstrous doctrine was asserted that reli- 
gion was an affair of the government, — that is, that he to 
whom belonged the rule , possessed the right to choose the 
people's faith. In accordance with this law the population of 
the Palatinate of the Rhine was afterwards compelled to be 
alternately Catholic and Protestant, four times in succession! 

The Treaty of Augsburg did not include the followers of 
Zwingli and Calvin, who were getting to be quite numerous 
in Southern and Western Germany, and they were left with- 
out any recognized rights. Nevertheless, what the Lutherans 
had gained was also gained for them, in the end; and the 
Treaty, although it did not secure equal justice, gave the 
highest sanction of the Empire to the Reformation. The Pope 
rejected and condemned it, but without the least effect upon 
the German Catholics, who were no less desirous of peace than 
the Protestants. Moreover, their hopes of a final triumph 
over the latter were greatly increased by the zeal and activity 
of the Jesuits , who had been accepted and commissioned by 
the Church of Rome 15 years before, who were rapidly in- 
creasing in numbers, and professed to have made the sup- 
pression of Protestant doctrines their chief task. 

This treaty was the last political event of Charles V.'s 
reign. One month later, to a day, he formally conferred on 
his son, Philip II., at Brussels , the government of the Nether- 



What Diet met, when, and what was done? What did the Protestants re- 
ceive? What was the ''spiritual reservation"? How were the people treated? 
What took place, under this rule? Who were not included in the Treat}-? 
How did the Pope act? What kept alive the hopes of the Catholics? 



1558.] FERDINAND OF AUSTRIA EMPEROR. 361 

lands, and on tlie 15th of January, 1556, resigned to liim the 
crowns of Spain and Naples. He then sailed for Spain, where 
he retired to the monastery of St. Just and lived for two years 
longer as an Imperial monk. He was the first monarch of his 
time and he made Spain the leading nation of the world: his 
immense energy, his boundless ambition, and liis cold, calcu- 
lating brain reestablished his power again and again, when it 
seemed on the point of giving way; but he died at last with- 
out having accomplished the two chief aims of his life — the 
reunion of all Christendom under the Pope , and the union of 
Germany with the Spanish Empire. The German people, 
following the leaders who had arisen out of their own breast, 
— Luther, Melanchthon, Reuchlin and Zwingli — defeated the 
former of these aims: the princes, who had found in Charles V. 
much more of a despot than they had bargained for, defeated 
the latter." 

The German Diet did not meet until March, 1558, when 
Ferdinand of Austria was elected and crowned Emperor, at 
Frankfort. Although a Catholic, he had always endeavored to 
protect the Protestants from the extreme measures which 
Charles Y. attempted to enforce, and he faithfully observed 
the Treaty of Augsburg. He even allowed the Protestant form 
of the sacrament and the marriage of priests in Austria, which 
brought upon him the condemnation of the Pope. Immediately 
after the Diet, a meeting of Protestant princes was held at 
Frankfort, for the purpose of settling certain differences of 
opinion which were not only disturbing the Lutherans but also 
tending to prevent any unity of action between them and the 
Swiss Protestants. Melanchthon did his utmost to restore 
harmony, but without success. He died in 1560, at the age 
of 63, and Calvin four years afterwards, the last of the leaders 
of the Reformation. 

On the 4th of December, 1563, the Council of Trent 



When and where did Charles V. abdicate? How did he spend the remain- 
der of his life? What had he accomplished? Wherein did he fail? Who 
defeated the first of his aims? Who defeated the other? When did the Diet 
meet? Who was elected? What was Ferdinand's course towards the Protes- 
tants? Wha* did the Protestant princes attempt? What Keformers died, 
and when ? 



3G2 END OF THE COUNCIL OP TRENT. [l363. 

finally adjourned, 18 years after it first came together. The 
attempts of a portion of the prelates composing it to reform 
and purify the Koman Church had been almost wholly 
thwarted by the influence of the Popes. It adopted a series of 
articles, to each one of which was attached an anathema, curs- 
ing all who refused to accept it. They contained the doc- 
trines of priestly celibacy, purgatory, masses for the dead, 
worship of saints, pictures and relics, absolution, fasts, and 
censorship of books — thus making an eternal chasm between 
Catholicism and Protestantism. At the close of the Council 
the Cardinal of Lorraine cried out: "Accursed be all heretics!" 
and all present answered: "Accursed! accursed!" until the 
building rang. In Italy, Spain and Poland, the articles were 
accepted at once, but the Catholics in France, Germany and 
Hungary were dissatisfied with many of the declarations, and 
the Church, in those countries, was compelled to overlook a 
great deal of quiet disobedience. 

At this time, although the Catholics had a majority in the 
Diet (since there were nearly 100 priestly members), the great 
majority of the German people had become Protestants. In 
all Northern Germany , except Westphalia, very few Catholic 
congregations were left: even the Archbishops of Bremen and 
Magdeburg, and the Bishops of Liibsck, Verden and Halber- 
stadt had joined the Reformation. In the priestly territories 
of Cologne, Treves, Mayence, Worms and Strasburg, the 
population was divided; the Palatinate of the Rhine, Baden 
and Wiirtemberg were almost entirely Protestant, and even 
in Upper-Austria and Styria the Catholics were in a minority. 
Bavaria was the main stay of Rome : her princes, of the house 
of Wittelsbach, were the most zealous and obedient champions 
of the Pope in all Germany. The Roman Church, however, 
had not given up the struggle: she was quietly and shrewdly 
preparing for one more desperate effort to recover her lost 
ground, and the Protestants, instead of perceiving the danger 



When did the Council of Trent adjourn? How had its action been thwar- 
ted? What doctrines did it adopt? What happened at the close? How were 
the articles received, in different countries V How was the Diet divided ? the 
German people? What States were Protestant in the Noi-th? How was it 
along the Rhine, in the South? What was the main stay of Kome? 



1560.] LOSS OF THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 3G3 

and uniting tliemselves more closely, were quarrelling among 
themselves conceniing theological questions upon which tliey 
have never yet agreed. 

There could be no better evidence that the reign of 
Charles V. had weakened instead of strengthening the German 
Empire, than the losses and humiliations which immediately 
followed. Ferdinand I. gave up half of Hungary to Sultan 
Solyman, and purchased the right to rule the other half by an 
annual payment of 300,000 ducats. About the same time, the 
Emperor's lack of power and the selfishness of the Hanseatic 
cities occasioned a much more important loss. The provinces 
on the eastern shore of the Baltic, which had been governed by 
the Order of the Brothers of the Sword after the downfall of 
the German Order, were overrun and terribly devastated by 
the Czar Ivan of Russia. The Grand Master of the Order ap- 
pealed to Liibeck and Hamburg for aid, which was refused; 
then, in 1559, he called upon the Diet of the German Empire 
and received vague promises of assistance, which had no prac- 
tical value. Then, driven to desperation, he turned to Poland, 
Sweden and Denmark, all of which countries took instant ad- 
vantage of his necessities. The Baltic provinces were defended 
against Russia — and lost to Germany. The Swedes and Danes 
took Esthonia, the Poles took Livonia, and only the little 
province of Courland remained as an independent State, the 
Grand Master becoming its first Duke. 

Ferdinand I. died in 1564, and was immediately succeeded 
by his eldest son, Maximilian H. The latter was in the prime 
of life, already popular for his goodness of heart, his engaging 
manners and his moderation and justice. The Protestants 
cherished great hopes, at first, that he would openly join them; 
but, although he so favored and protected them in Austria that 
Vienna almost became a Protestant city, he refused to leave 
the Catholic Church, and even sent his son Rudolf to be edu- 
cated in Spain, under the bitter and bigoted influence of 



What was the position of the Roman Church ? "What followed the reign 
of Charles V.? What did Ferdinand yield to Sultan Solyman? What other 
serious loss occurred? To whom did the Grand Master appeal, when, and 
with what efifect? To whom did ho finally turn ? What were the consequences ? 
When did Ferdinand die, and who followed? What was Maximilian II. 's 
character? 



o64 THE GRUMBACH REBELLION. [l5G7. 

Pliilip 11. His daugliter was married to Charles IX. of France, 
and when he heard of the massacre of St. Bartholomew (in 
August, 1572) he cried out: "Would to God that my son-in- 
law had asked counsel of me! I would so faithfully have per- 
suaded him as a father, that he certainly would never have 
done this thing." He also endeavored, but in vain, to soften 
the persecutions and cruelties of Philip II.'s reign in the 
Ketherlands. 

Maximilian H.'s reign of twelve years was quiet and un- 
eventful. Only one disturbance of the internal peace occurred, 
and it is worthy of note as the last feud, after so many cen- 
turies of free fighting between the princes. An independent 
knight, William von Grumbach, having been dispossessed of 
his lands by the Bishop of Wiirzburg, waylaid the latter, who 
was slain in the fight which occurred. Grumbach fled to France, 
but soon allied himself with several dissatisfied Franconian 
knights, and finally persuaded John Frederick of Saxony (the 
smaller Dukedom) to espouse his cause. • The latter was out- 
lawed by the Emperor, yet he obstinately determined to resist, 
in the hope of wresting the EUectorate of Saxony from the 
younger line and restoring it to his own family. He was be- 
sieged by the Imperial army in Gotha, in 1567, and taken 
prisoner. Grumbach was tortured ajid executed , and John 
Frederick kept in close confinement until his death, 28 years 
aftenvards. His sons, however, were allowed to succeed him. 
The severity with which thi^ breach of the internal peace was 
punished put an end, forever, to petty wars in Germany: the 
measures adopted by the Diet of 1495, under Maximilian I., 
were at last recognized as binding laws. 

The Revolt of the Netherlands, which broke out immedi- 
ately after Maximilian II.'s accession to the throne, had little, 
if any, political relation to Germany. Under Charles V. the 
Netherlands had been quite separated from any connection 
with the German Empire, and he was free to introduce the 



How did ho act towards the Protestants? How did ho consider the Mas- 
sacre of St. Bartholomew? What else did he endeavor to do? Wliat was the 
cliaracter of his reign? Describe the revolt of William von Grumbach. What 
was tlie end of the revolt? How was the Duke, John Frederitik, punished? 
What was the effect of this severity? 



1576.] KUDOLF II. EMPEEOR. 365 

Inquisition there and persecute the Protestants with all the 
barbarity demanded by Rome. Philip 11. followed the same 
policy: the torture, fire and sword were employed against the 
people until they arose against the intolerable Sjjanish rule, 
and entered upon that struggle of nearly forty years which 
ended in establishing the independence of Holland. 

On the 12th of October, 1576, at a Diet where he had 
declared his policy in religious matters to be simply the en- 
forcement of the Treaty of Augsburg, Maximilian II. suddenly 
fell dead. According to the custom which they had now fol- 
lowed for 140 years, of keeping the Imperial dignity in the 
house of Hapsburg, the Electors immediately chose his son, 
Rudolf IL, an avowed enemy of the Protestants. Unlike his 
father, his nature was cold, stern and despotic: he was gloomy, 
unsocial and superstitious, and the circumstance that he aided 
and encouraged the great astronomers, Kepler and Tycho de 
Brahe, was probably owing to his love for astrology and al- 
chemy. He was subject to sudden and violent attacks of pas- 
sion, which were followed by periods of complete indifference 
to his duties. Like Frederick HI., a hundred years before, he 
concerned himself with the affairs of Austria, his direct in- 
heritance, rather than with those of the Empire; and thus, 
although internal wars had been suppressed, he encouraged 
the dissensions in religion and politics, which were gradually 
bringing on a more dreadful war than Germany had ever 
known before. 

One of Rudolf II.'s first measures was to take from the 
Austrian Protestants the right of worship which his father had 
allowed them. He closed their churches, removed them from 
all the offices they held, and, justifying himself by the Treaty 
of Augsburg that whoever ruled the people should choose 
their religious faith, did his best to make Austria wholly 
Catholic. Many Catholic princes and priests, emboldened by 
his example, declared that the articles promulgated by the 
Council of Trent abolished the Treaty of Augsburg and gave 



What took place in the Netherlands? How did Philip II. act? "What waa 
the consequence? When, and under what circumstances, did Maximilian II. 
die? What custom did the Electors follow? What was Rudolf II.'s nature? 
How did he reign? How did he treat the Austrian Protestants? 



36(5 THE GKOWTH AND CONDITION OF GEKMANY. [iGOO. 

them the right to put down heresy by force. When the Arch- 
bishop of Cologne became a Protestant and married, the Ger- 
man Catholics called upon Alexander of Parma, who came 
from the Netherlands with a Spanish army, took possession of 
the former's territory, and installed a new Catholic Archbishop, 
without resistance on the j)art of the Protestant majority of 
Germany. Thus the hate and bitterness on both sides increased 
from year to year, without culminating in open hostilities. 

The history of Germany, from the accession of Rudolf 11. 
to the end of the century, is marked by no political event of 
importance. Spain was fully occupied in her hopeless attempt 
to subdue the Netherlands : in France Henry of Navarre was 
fighting tlie Duke of Guise; Hungary and Austria were left to 
check the advance of the Turkish invasion, and nearly all Ger- 
many enjoyed peace for upwards of fifty years. During this 
time, population and wealth greatly increased, and life in the 
cities and at courts became luxurious and more or less im- 
moral. The arts and sciences began to flourish, the people 
grew in knowledge, yet the spirit out of which the Reformation 
sprang seemed almost dead. The elements of good and evil 
were strangely mixed together — intelligence and superstition, 
piety and bigotry, civilization and barbarism were found side 
by side. As formerly in her history, it appeared nearly im- 
possible for Germany to grow by a gradual and healthy de- 
velopment: her condition must be bad enough to bring on a 
violent convulsion, before it could be improved. 

Such was the state of affairs at the end of the sixteenth 
century. In spite of the material prosperity of the country, 
there was a general feeling among the people that evil days 
were coming ; but the most desponding prophet could hardly 
have predicted worse misfortunes than they were called upon 
to suffer during the next fifty years. 



What was then done by other Catholic princes? "What happened at Co- 
logne? What was the history of Germany during Rudolf II. 's reign? What 
was happening in other countries ? What was the condition of Germany? 
What elements were mixed together? What foreboding existed among the 
people? 



I600.J THE PKOTESTANT SECTS. 367 



CHArXER XXVII, 

BEGINNING OF THE TIIIETY YEARs' WAB. 
(1600 — 1625.) 

Growth of the Calvinistic or "Reformed" Church. — Persecution of Protestants 
in Styria. — The Catholic League. — The Struggle for the Succession of 
Cleves. — Rudolf II. set aside.— His Death.— Mathias Becomes Emperor. — 
Character of Ferdinand of Styria. — Revolt in Prague. — War in Bohemia. — 
Death of Mathias. — Ferdinand Besieged in Vienna. — He is Crowned Em- 
peror. — Blindness of the Protestant Princes.— Frederick of the Palatinate 
chosen King of Bohemia.— Barbarity of Ferdinand II. — The Protestants 
Cruslied in Boliemia and Austria. — Count Mansfeld and Prince Christian 
of Brunswick. — War in Baden and the Palatinate. — Tilly. — His Ravages. — 
Miserable Condition of Germany. — Union of the Northern States.— Chris- 
tian IV. of Denmark. — Wallenstein. — His History. — His Proposition to 
Ferdinand II. 

The beginning of the seventeenth century found the Pro- 
testants in Germany still divided. The followers of Zwingli, 
it is true, had accepted the Augsburg Confession as the shortest 
means of acquiring freedom of worship; but the Calvinists, 
who were now rapidly increasing, were not willing to take 
this step, nor were the Lutherans any more tolerant^ towards 
them than at the beginning. The Dutch, in conquering their 
independence of Spain, gave the Calvinistic, or, as it was cal- 
led in Germany, the Reformed Church, a new political impor- 
tance ; and it was not long before the Palatinate of the Rhine, 
Baden, Hesse-Cassel and Anhalt also joined it. The Protestants 
were split into two strong and unfriendly sects, at the very 
time when the Catholics, under the teaching of the Jesuits, 
were uniting against them. 

Duke Ferdinand of Styria, a young cousin of Rudolf II., 
began the struggle. Styria was at that time. Protestant , and 
refused to change its faith at the command of the Duke, where- 
upon he visited every part of the land with an armed force, 
closed the churches, burned the hymn-books and Bibles, and 



How did the Protestants stand? What had the followers of Zwingli done, 
and why? What was tho position of the Calvinists and Lutherans? What 
countries were Calvinist? What were the Catholics doing? 



3C8 THE ^'succession of CLEYES. [ifiOO. 

banished every one who was not willing to become a Catholic 
on the spot. lie openly declared that it was better to rule 
over a desert than a land of heretics. Duke Maximilian of 
Bavaria followed his example: in 1607 he seized the free Pro- 
testant city of Donauworth, on the Danube, on account of 
some quarrel between its inhabitants and a monastery, and 
held it, in violation of all laws of the Empire. A protest made 
to tlie Diet on account of this act was of no avail, since a ma- 
jority of the members were Catholics. The Protestants of 
Southern Germany formed a "Union" for mutual protection, 
in May, 1608, with Frederick IV. of tlie Palatinate at their 
head; but, as they were mostly of the Reformed Church, they 
received little sympathy or support from the Protestant States 
in the North. 

IMaximiHan of Bavaria then established a "Catholic League," 
in opposition, relying on the assistance of Spain, while the 
"Protestant Union" relied on that of Henry IV. of France. 
Both sides began to arm, and they would soon have proceeded 
to open hostilities, when a dispute of much greater importance 
div^orted their attention to the North of Germany. This was 
the so-called "Succession of Cleves." Duke John William of 
Cleves, who governed the former separate dukedoms of Jiilich, 
Cleves and Berg, and the countships of Ravensberg and Mark, 
embracing a large extent of territory on both sides of the 
Lower Rhine, died in 1 609 without leaving a direct heir. He 
had been a Catholic, but his people were Protestants. John 
Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and Wolfgang William of 
the Bavarian Palatinate, both relatives on the female side, 
claimed the splendid inheritance; and when it became evident, 
that the Catholic interest meant to secure it, they quickly 
united their forces and took possession. The Emperor then 
sent the Archduke Leopold of Hapsburg to hold the State in 
his name, wdiereupon the Protestant Union made an instant 



Wlio bogan the struggle? What did he do in Styria? What declaratfoo 
did he make? What did Maximilian of Bavaria do, and when? How did the 
Diet act? Wliat union was formed? Why did they receive little sympathy? 
What was formed, in opposition to tlie "Union"? What new dispute aroso? 
What liappened in Cloves, and wlicn? Who claimed the inheritance, and what 
did they do? What did the Emperor do? 



1606.] KUDOLF n. SET ASIDE. 369 

alliance with Henry IV. of France, who was engaged in orga- 
nizing an army for its aid , when he fell by the dagger of the 
assassin, Ravaillac, in 1610. This dissolved the alliance, and 
the *'Umon" and ^'League," finding themselves agreed in op- 
posing the creation of another Austrian State, on the Lower 
Rhine, concluded peace before any serious fighting had taken 
place between them. 

The two claimants to the succession adopted a similar po- 
licy. Wolfgang William became a Catholic, married the sister 
of Maximilian of Bavaria, and so brought the "League" to sup- 
port him, and the Elector John Sigisraund became a Calviiiist 
(which almost excited a rebellion among the Brandenburg Lu- 
therans), in order to get the support of the *'Union." Tlie 
former was assisted by Spanish troops from Flanders, the latter 
by Dutch troops from Holland, and the war was carried on 
until 1614, when it was settled by a division which gave John 
Sigismund the lion's share. 

Meanwhile the Emperor Rudolf H. was becoming so old, 
so whimsical and so useless, that in 1606 the princes of the 
house of Hapsburg held a meeting, declared liim incapable of 
governing, "on account of occasional imbecilities of mind/' and 
appointed his brother Mathias regent for Austria, Hungary 
and Moravia. The Emperor refused to yield, but, with the 
help of the nobility, who were mostly Protestants, Mathias 
maintained his claim. He was obliged, in return, to grant 
rehgious freedom, which so encouraged the oppressed Pro- 
testants in Bohemia that they demanded similar rights from 
the Emperor. Li his helpless situation he gave way to the 
demand, but soon became alarmed at the increase of the heretics, 
and tried to take back his concession. The Bohemians called 
Mathias to their assistance, and in 1611 Rudolf lost his re- 
maining kingdom and his favorite residence of Prague. As 
he looked upon the city for the last time, he cried out: "i\Iay 



Who asfreed to help the Protestants, how and -when was he prevented? 
In what did the "Union" and "League" agree? What did Wolfgang William 
do? What did John Sigismund do? How were the two assisted? When was 
the matter settled? What happened in Austria, meanwhile? What waa 
Mathias obliged to do? Its consequence? How did the Emperor act? What 
was the result, and when? 



370 FERDINAND OF STYEIA. [l617 

the vengeance of God overtake tliee , and my curse liglit on 
thee and all Bohemia!" In less than a year (on the 20th of 
January, 1612) he died. 

Mathias was elected Emperor of Germany, as a matter of 
course. The house of Hapsburg was now the strongest Ger- 
man power which represented the Church of Rome, and the 
Catholic majority in the Diet secured to it the Imperial dignity 
then and thenceforward. The Protestants, however, voted 
also for Mathias, for the reason that he had already showed 
a tolerant policy towards their brethren in Austria, Hungary 
and Bohemia. His first measures, as Emperor, justified this 
view of his character. He held a Diet at Ratisbon for the pur- 
pose of settling the existing differences between the two , but 
nothing was accomplished: the Protestants, finding that they 
would be outvoted, withdrew in a body and thus broke up the 
Diet. Mathias next endeavored to dissolve both the *'Union" 
and the "League," in which he was only partially successful. 
At the same time his rule in Hungary was menaced by a re- 
volt of the Transylvanian chief, Bethlen Gabor, who w^as as- 
sisted by the Turks: he grew weary of his task, and was easily 
persuaded by the other princes of his house to adopt his 
nephew, Duke Ferdinand of Styria, as his successor, in the 
year 1617, having no children of his own. 

Ferdinand, who had been carefully educated by the Jesuits 
for the part which he was afterwards to play, and whose 
violent suppression of the Protestant faith in Styria made him 
acceptable to all the German Catholics , was a man of great 
energy and force of character. He was stern, bigoted, cruel, 
yet shrewd, cunning and apparently conciliatory when he found 
it necessary to be so, resembling, in both respects, his pre- 
decessor, Charles Y. of Spain. In return for being chosen by 
the Bohemians to succeed Mathias as king, he confirmed them 
in the religious freedom which they had extorted from Ru- 
dolf II., and then joined the Emperor in an expedition to 



How did Rudolf II. take leave of Prague? What was now the position of 
the house of Hapsburg? Why did the Protestants vote for Mathias? Wliat 
Diet was held, and what was done? What did Mathias next attempt? Whom 
did he adopt, and wlien? "What was Frederick's character? Whom did ho 
resemble, and in what manner? 



IfilS.j BEGINNING OF THE THIRTY YEARS WAR. 371 

Hungary, leaving Bohemia to be governed in the interim by a 
Council of ten, 7 Catholics and 3 Protestants. 

The first thing that happened was the destruction of two 
or three Protestant churches by Catholic Bishops. The Bo- 
hemian Protestants appealed immediately to the Emperor 
Mathias, but, instead of redress, he gave them only threats. 
Thereupon they rose in Prague, stormed the Council Hall, 
seized two of the Councillors and their Secretaries, and hurled 
them out of the windows. Although the latter fell a distance 
of 28 feet, they were not killed, and all finally escaped. This 
event happened on the 23d of May, 1618, and marks the be- 
ginning of the Thirty Years War. After such long chronicles 
of, violence and slaughter, the deed seemed of slight impor- 
tance; but the hundredth anniversary of the Reformation 
(counting from Luther's proclamation against Tetzel, on the 
31st of October, 1517), had been celebrated by the Protestants 
the year before, England was lost and France barely restored 
to the Church of Rome, the power of Spain was declining, and 
the Catholic priests and princes were resolved to make one 
more desperate struggle to regain their supremacy in Ger- 
many. Only the Protestant princes, as a body, seemed blind 
to the coming danger. Relying on the fact that four -fifths 
of the whole population of the Empire were Protestants, they 
still persisted in regarding all the political forms of the Middle 
Ages as holy, and in accepting nearly every measure which 
gave advantage to their enemies. 

Although the Protestants had only 3 Councillors out of 
10, they were largely in the majority in Bohemia. They knew 
what retaliation the outbreak in Prague would bring upon 
them, and anticipated it by making the revolution general. 
They chose Count Thun as their leader, overturned the Im- 
perial government, banished the Jesuits from the country, and 
entered into relations with the Protestant nobles of Austria, 
and the insurgent chief Bethlen Gabor in Hungary. The Em- 



What was his course in regard to Bohemia? What happened there, and 
what did the Protestants do? Describe the outbreak in Prague. When was 
this, and what does it mark? What was the position of the Protestants and 
Catliolics, throughout Europe? How did the Protestant princes conduct them- 
Belves? What did the Bohemian Protestants do? What were their measures? 



372 Ferdinand's escape from Vienna. [leia. 

peror Mathias was willing to compromise the difficulty , but 
Ferdinand, stimulated by the Jesuits, declared for war. He 
sent two small armies into Bohemia, with a proclamation call- 
ing upon the people to submit. The Protestants of the North 
were at last aroused from their lethargy. Count Mansfeld 
marched with a force of 4,000 men to aid the Bohemians, and 
3,000 more came from Silesia ; the Imperial army was defeated 
and driven back to tlie Danube. At this juncture the Em- 
peror Mathias died, on the 20th of May, 1619. 

Ferdinand lost not a day in taking the power into his 
own hands. But Austria threatened revolution , Hungary had 
made common cause with Bohemia, Count Thun was marching 
on Vienna, and he was without an army to support his claims. 
Count Thun, however, instead of attacking Vienna, encamped 
outside the walls and began to negotiate. Ferdinand, hard 
pressed by the demands of the Austrian Protestants , was on 
the very point of yielding — in fact, a member of a deputation 
of 16 noblemen had seized him by the coat, — when trumpets 
were heard, and a body of 500 cavalry, which had reached the 
city without being intercepted by the besiegers, appeared be- 
fore the palace. This enabled him to defend the city, until the 
defeat of Count Mansfeld by another portion of his army which 
had entered Bohemia compelled Count Thun to raise the siege. 
Then Ferdinand hastened to Frankfort to look after his elec- 
tion as Emperor by the Diet, which met on the 28th of Au- 
gust, 1619. 

It seems almost incredible that now, knowing his charac- 
ter and designs, the three Chief Electors who were Protestants 
should have voted for him, without being conscious that they 
were traitors to their faith and their people. It has been 
charged, but without any clear evidence, that they were bribed : 
it is probable that Ferdinand, whose Jesuitic education taught 
him that falsehood and perjury are permitted in serving the 
Church, misled them by promises of peace and justice; but it 



How did Mathias and Ferdinand act? What did the latter proclaim? What 
assistance came, and what followed? When did Mathias die? What was 
Ferdinand's position? What was Count Thun's course? Describe how Ferdi- 
nand was relieved. What was the consequence of this? When and whero 
was a Diet held? Who voted for Ferdinand? 



1620.] FKEDEEICK V. DRIVEN FROM BOHEMIA. 373 

is also very likely that tliey imagined their own sovereignty 
depended on sustaining every tradition of the Empire. The 
people, of course, had not yet acquired any rights wliich a 
prince felt himself called upon to respect. 

Ferdinand was elected, and properly crowned in the Cathe- 
dral at Frankfort, as Ferdinand II. The Bohemians, who were 
entitled to one of the seven chief voices in the Diet, claimed 
that the election was not binding upon them, and chose Fre- 
derick V. of the Palatinate as their king, in the hope that the 
Protestant "Union" would rally to their support. It was a 
fatal choice and a false hope. When Maximilian of Bavaria, 
at the head of the Catholic "League," took the field for the 
Emperor, the "Union" cowardly witlidrew. Frederick V. went 
to Bohemia, was crowned and idled his time away in fantastic 
diversions for one winter, while Ferdinand was calling Spain 
to attack the Palatinate of the Rhine, and borrowing Cossacks 
from Poland to put down his Protestant subjects in Austria. 
The Emperor assured the Protestant princes that the war 
should be confined to Bohemia, and one of them, the Elector 
John George of Saxony, a Lutheran , openly went over to his 
side in order to defeat Frederick V., a Calvinist. The Bo- 
hemians fell back to the walls of Prague before the armies of 
the Emperor and Bavaria ; and there, on the White Mountain, 
a battle of an hour's duration, in November, 1620, decided 
the fate of the country. The former scattered in all direc- 
tions; Frederick V. left Prague never to return, and Spanish, 
Italian and Hungarian troops overran Bohemia. 

Ferdinand II. acted as might have been expected from his 
despotic and bigoted nature. The 8,000 Cossacks which he 
had borrowed from his brother-in-law, king Sigismnnd of 
Poland, had already closed all Protestant Churches and sup- 
pressed freedom of worship in Austria; he now applied the 
same measures to Bohemia, but in a more violent and bloody 
form. Twenty-seven of the chief Protestant nobles were be- 



What has been charged against them? What is probable? Whom did the 
Bohemians choose, and why? How were their hopes fulfilled? What did 
Trederick V. do? In what was Ferdinand II. engaged? What was the course 
of the Elector of Saxony? When and where was the decisive battle fought? 
What was its result? How had Ferdinand II. acted in Austria? 



374 BARBAEITY OF FERDINAND U. [l621. 

headed at Prague in one day; thousands of families were strip- 
ped of all their property and banished; the Protestant churches 
were given to the Catholics, the Jesuits took possession of 
the University and the schools, until finally, as a historian 
says, "the quiet of a sepulchre settled over Bohemia." The 
Protestant faith was practically obliterated from all the 
Austrian realm, with the exception of a few scattered congre- 
gations in Flungary and Transylvania. 

There is hardly anywhere, in the history of the world, 
such an instance of savage despotism. A large majority of 
the population of Austria, Bohemia and Styria were Protes- 
tants; they were rapidly growing in intelligence, in social or- 
der and material prosperity ; but the will of one man was al- 
lowed to destroy the progress of a hundred years, to crush 
both the faith and freedom of the people, plunder them of 
their best earnings and make them ignorant slaves for 200 
years longer. The property which was seized by Ferdinand II., 
in Bohemia alone, was estimated at forty millions of florins ! 
And the strength of Germany, which was Protestant, looked 
on and saw all this happen! Only the common people of Aus- 
tria arose against the tyrant, and gallantly struggled for 
months, at first under the command of a farmer named Stephen 
Fadinger, and, when he was slain in the moment of victory, 
under an unknown young hero, who had no other name than 
"the Student." The latter defeated the Bavarian army, re- 
sisted the famous Austrian general, Pappenheim, in many 
battles, and at last fell, after the most of his followers had 
fallen, without leaving his name to history. The Austrian 
peasants rivalled the Swiss of three centuries before in their 
bravery and self-sacrifice: had they been successful (as they 
might have been, with small help from their Protestant 
brethren), they would have changed the course of German 
history, and have become renowned among the heroes of the 
world. 



What did he now do, in Bohemia? What was left of the Protestants in 
the Austrian realm? What was the character of these acts? What had been 
the condition of the country? How was it changed? How much property 
was seized? What was done by Protestant Germany? What did the common 
people attempt? Under what leaders? What was achieved by the unknown 
Student? What may be said of the Austrian peasants? 



1621.] PKINCE CHRISTIAN OF BEL'NSWICK. 375 

The fate of Austria, from that clay to this, was now sealed. 
Both parties — the Catholics, headed by Ferdinand II., and the 
Protestants, without any head, — next turned to the Palatinate 
of the Rhine, where a Spanish army, sent from Flanders, was 
wasting and plundering in the name of the Emperor. Count 
Ernest of Mansfeld and Prince Christian of Brunswick, who 
had supported Frederick V. in Bohemia, endeavored to save 
at least the Palatinate for him. They were dashing and eccentric 
young generals, whose personal reputation attracted all sorts 
of wild and lawless characters to take service under them. 
Mansfeld, who had been originally a Catholic, was partly sup- 
ported by contributions from England and Holland, but he 
also took what he could get from the country through which 
he marched. Christian of Brunswick was a fantastic prince, 
who tried to imitate the knights of the Middle Ages. He was 
a great admirer of the Countess Elizabeth of the Palatinate 
(sister of Charles I. of England), and always wore her glove 
on his helmet. In order to obtain money for his troops, he 
plundered the bishoprics in Westphalia, and forced the cities 
and villages to pay him heavy contributions. When he en- 
tered the cathedral at Paderborn and saw the silver statues 
of the Apostles around the altar, he cried out: "What are you 
doing here ? You were ordered to go forth into the world, but 
wait a bit — I'll send you!" So he had them melted and 
coined into dollars, upon which the words were stamped: 
"Friend of God, foe of the priests!" He afterwards gave him- 
self that name, but the soldiers generally called him *'Mad 
Christian." 

Against these two, and George Frederick of Baden, who 
joined them, Ferdinand II. sent Maximilian of Bavaria, to 
whom he promised the Palatinate as a reward, and Tilly, a 
general already famous both for his military talent and his in- 
humanity. The latter, who had been educated by the Jesuits 
for a priest, was in the Bavarian service. He was a small, 
lean man, with a face almost comical in its ugliness. His nose 



Whither did both parties next turn? Who were supporting Frederick V.? 
What were they? How was Mansfeld supported? What was Christian of 
Brunswick's character? How did he obtain money? Relate what he did at 
Paderborn. Whom did Ferdinand II. send against these two? 

17 



376 



TILLY. 



[1622. 



was like a parrot's beak, his forehead seamed with deep 
wrinkles, his eyes sunk in their sockets and liis cheek-bones 
projecting. He usually wore a dress of green satin, with a 
cocked hat and long red feather, and rode a small, mean-look- 
ing gray horse. 




TILIiY. 



Early in 1622 the Imperial army under Tilly was defeated, 
or at least checked, by the united forces of Man^feld and 
Prince Christian. But in May of the same year, the forces of 
the latter, with those of George Frederick of Baden, were al- 
most cut to pieces by Tilly, at Wimpfen. They retreated into 
Alsatia, where they burned and plundered at will, while Tilly 
pursued the same course on the eastern side of the Rhine. 



Wlifit was Tilly's character and personal appearance? What first happened 
In 1622? What followed? What hinds were pluuderod by both armies? 



1623.] EVIL DAYS IX GERMANY. 377 

He took and destroyed the cities of Mannheim and Heidel- 
berg, closed the Protestant churches, banished the clergymen 
and teachers, and supplied their places with Jesuits. The in- 
valuable library of Heidelberg was sent to Pope Gregory XV. 
at Rome, and remained there until 1815, when a part of it 
came back to the University by way of Paris. 

Frederick Y., who had fled from the country, entered into 
negotiations with the Emperor, in the hope of retaining the 
Palatinate. He dissolved his connection with Mansfeld and 
Prince Christian, who thereupon offered their services to the 
Emperor, on condition that he would pay their soldiers! Re- 
ceiving no answer, they marched through Lorraine and Flan- 
ders, laying waste the country as they went, and finally took 
refuge in Holland. Frederick V.'s humiliation was of no avail ; 
none of the Protestant princes supported his claim. The Em- 
peror gave his land, with the Electoral dignity, to Maximilian 
of Bavaria, and this act, although a direct violation of the laws 
which the German princes held as sacred , was acquiesced in 
by them at a Diet held at Ratisbon in 1623. John George of 
Saxony, who. saw clearly that it was a fatal blow aimed both 
at the Protestants and at the rights of the reigning princes, 
was persuaded to be silent by the promise of having Lusatia 
added to Saxony. 

By this time, Germany w^as in a worse condition than she 
had known for centuries. The'power of the Jesuits, represen- 
ted by Ferdinand H., his councillors and generals, was supreme 
almost everywhere; the Protestant princes vied with each 
other in meanness, selfishness and cowardice; the people were 
slaughtered, robbed, driven hither and thither by both par- 
ties: there seemed to be neither faith nor justice left in the 
land. The other Protestant nations — England, Holland, Den- 
mark and Sweden — looked on with dismay, and even Cardinal 
Richelieu , who was then practically the ruler of France , was 



What did Tilly do in the Palatinate? What was the fate of the Library of 
Heidelberg? What was the course of Frederick V.? That of Mansfeld and 
Prince Christian? What did the latter next do? How did the Emperor and 
Diet treat Frederick V.? When? How was John George of Saxony bribed? 
What was the condition of Germany at this time? How did other Protestant 
nations regard it? 



378 UNION OF NORTHERN STATES. [l625. 

willing to see Ferdinand II.'s power crippled, thougli the Pro- 
testants should gain thereby. England and Holland assisted 
Mansfeld and Prince Cliiistian with money, and the latter or- 
ganized new armies, with which they ravaged Friesland and 
Westphalia. Prince Christian was on his way to Bohemia, in 
order to unite with the Hungarian chief, Bethlen Gabor, when, 
on the 6th of August, 1623, he met Tilly at a place called 
Stadtloon, near Miinster, and , after a murderous battle which 
lasted three days, was .utterly defeated. About the same time 
Mansfeld, needing further support, went to England, where 
he was received with great honor. 

Ferdinand 11. had in the meantime concluded a peace with 
Bethlen Gabor, and his authority was firmly established over 
Austria and Bohemia. Tilly with his Bavarians was victorious 
in Westphalia; all armed opposition to the Emperor's rule 
was at an end, yet instead of declaring peace established , and 
restoring the former order of the Empire, his agents continued 
their work of suppressing religious freedom and civil rights 
in all the States which had been overrun by the Catholic ar- 
mies. The whole Empire was threatened with the fate of 
Austria. Then, at last, in 1625, Brunswick, Brandenburg, 
Mecklenburg, Hamburg, Liibeck and Bremen formed a union 
for mutual defence, choosing as their leader king Christian IV. 
of Denmark, the same monarch who had broken down the 
power of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic and North Seas ! 
Although a Protestant , he was no friend to the North-Ger- 
man States, but he energetically united with them in the hope 
of being able to enlarge his kingdom at their expense. 

Christian IV. lost no time in making arrangements with 
England and Holland which enabled both Mansfeld and Prince 
Christian of Brunswick to raise new forces, with which they 
returned to Germany. Tilly, in order to intercept them, en- 
tered the territory of the States which had united, and thus 



Who was then ruler of France? What was his policy? Who assisted tlio 
Protestant generals? What were the fortunes of Prince Christian? What, 
now, was Ferdinand II.'s position? What course did he pursue ? With wliat 
was the Empire threatened? What union was formed in the North, and when? 
Who was chosen leader? Why did he unite with them? What arrangements 
did ho make? 



1625.] ALLIANCE WITH CHEISTIAN IV. OF DEXMARK. 



379 



gave Christian IV. a pretext for declaring war. The latter 
marched down from Denmark at once, but found no earnest 
union among the States, and only 7,000 men collected. He 
soon succeeded, however, in bringing together a force much 




WALLENSTKIN. 



larger than that commanded by Tilly, and was only hindered 
in his plan of immediate action by a fall from his horse, which 
crippled him for six weeks. The city of Hamelin was taken, 
and Tilly compelled to fall back, but no other important move- 
ments took place during the year 1625. 



What enabled him to declare war? What did Christian IV. find, on enter- 
ing (ierniany? What delayed his action? What liappened during the year 1625? 



330 WALLENSTEIN. [l625. 

Ferdinand II. was already growing jealous of the increasing 
power of Bavaria, and determined that the Catholic and Im- 
perial cause should not be entrusted to Tilly alone. But he 
had little money, his own military force had been wasted by the 
wars in Bohemia, Austria and Hungary, and there was no other 
commander of sufficient renown to attract men to his standard. 
Yet it was necessary that Tilly should be reinforced as soon 
as possible, or his scheme of crushing the whole of Germany, 
and laying it, as a fettered slave, at the feet of the Roman 
Church, might fail, and at the very moment when success 
seemed sure. 

In this emergency, a new man presented himself. Albert 
of Waldstein, better known under his historical name of Wal- 
lenstein, was born at Prague in 1583. He was the son of a 
poor nobleman, and violent and unruly as a youth, until a fall 
from the third story of a house efiected a sudden change in 
his nature. He became brooding and taciturn, gave tip his 
Protestant faith, and was educated by the Jesuits at Olmiitz. 
He travelled in Spain, France and the Netherlands, fought in 
Italy against Venice and in Hungary against Bethlen Gabor 
and the Turks, and rose to the rank of Colonel. He married 
an old and rich widow, and after her death increased his wealth 
by a second marriage, so that, when the Protestants were ex- 
pelled from Bohemia, he was able to purchase 60 of their 
confiscated estates. Adding these to that of Friedland, which 
he had received from the Emperor in return for military ser- 
vices, he possessed a small principality, lived in great splendor, 
and paid and equipped his own troops. He was first made 
Count, and then Duke of Friedland, with the authority of an 
independent prince of the Em^Dire. 

Wallenstein was superstitious, and his studies in astro- 
logy gave him the belief that a much higher destiny awaited 
him. Here was the opportunity: he offered to raise and com- 
mand a second army, in the Emperor's service. Ferdinand II. 



How was Ferdinand II. situated, with regard to Bavaria ? "Why was he 
compelled to reinforce Tilly? Wlio presented hinisolf? When was he horn? 
"What was his history? How did lie enrich himself? How did lie live, and 
what titles were bestowed upon him? What belief had he? What did lio 
now offer to do ? 



1625.] HE RAISES AN ARMY. 381 

accepted the offer with joy, and sent word to Wallenstein that 
he should immediately proceed to enlist 20,000 men. "My 
army," the latter answered, "must live by what it can take: 
20,000 men are not enough. I must have 50,000, and then I 
can demand what I want!" The threat of terrible ravage 
contained in these words was soon carried out. 

Wallenstein was tall and meagre, in person. His forehead 
was high but narrow, his hair black and cut very short, his 
eyes small, dark -and fiery, and his complexion yellow. His 
voice was harsh and disagreeable: he never smiled, and spoke 
only when it was necessary. He usually dressed in scarlet, 
with a leather jerkin , and wore a long red featlier on his hat. 
'J'here was something cold, mistrustful and mysterious in his 
appearance, yet he possessed unbounded power over his sol- 
diers, whom he governed with severity and rewarded splen- 
didly. There are few more interesting personages in German 
history. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

TILLY, WALLENSTEIN AND GUSTAVUS ADOLrilUS. 

(1625—1634.) 

The Winter of 1625-6,— Wallenstein's Victory.— MansfelJ's Death.— Tilly De- 
feats Christian IV. — Wallenstein^s Successes in Saxony, Brandenburg 
and Holstein,— Siege of Stralsund,— The Edict of Restitution.— Its Effects. 
— Wallensteiu's Plans.— Diet at Eatisbon.— Wallenstein's Removal.— Arrival 
of Gustavus Adolphus.— His Positions and Plans.- His Character. — Cow- 
ardice of the Protestant Princes.— Tilly sacks Magdeburg.— Decision of 
Gustavus Adolphus.— Tilly's Defeat at Leipzig.— Bohemia Invaded.— Gus- 
tavus at Frankfort.— Defeat and Death of Tilly.— Gustavus in Munich.— 
Wallenstein Restored.— His Conditions.— He Meets Gustavus at Nurem- 
berg.— He Invades Saxony. —Battle of Lutzen.— Deathof Gustavus Adolphus. 
— Wallensteiu's Retreat.— Union of Protestant Princes with Sweden.— Pro- 
testant Successes.— Secret Negotiations with Wallenstein.— His Movements. 
—Conspiracy against him.— His Removal.— His March to Eger.-His Assas- 
sination. 

Before the end of the year 1625, and within three months 
after Ferdinand II. had commissioned Wallenstein to raise an 



What word did Ferdinand IT. send? Wliat was Wallenstcin's answer? 
What was his personal appearance? His dress and habits? 



382 WALLENSTEIN's successes. [1626, 

army, the latter marched into Saxony at the head of 30,000 
men. No important operations were undertaken during the 
winter: Christian IV. and Mansfeld had their separate quarters 
on the one side, Tilly and Wallenstein on the other, and the 
four armies devoured the substance of the lands where they 
were encamped. In April, 1626, Mansfeld marched against 
Wallenstein, to prevent him from uniting with Tilly. The two 
armies met at the bridge of the Elbe, at Dessau, and fought 
desperately: Mansfeld was defeated, driven into Brandenburg, 
and then took his way through Silesia towards Hungary, with 
the intention of forming an alliance with Bethlen Gabor. 
Wallenstein followed by forced marches, and compelled Gabor 
to make peace with the Emperor: Mansfeld disbanded his 
troops and set out for Venice, where he meant to embark for 
England. But he was already worn out by the hardships of 
his campaigns, and died on the way, in Dalmatia, in Novem- 
ber, 1626, 45 years of age. A few months afterwards Prince 
Christian of Brunswick also died, and the Protestant cause was 
left without any native German leader. 

During the same year the cause received a second and 
severer blow. On the 26th of August Christian IV. and Tilly 
came together at Lutter, a little town on the northern edge of 
the Hartz, and the army of the former was cut to pieces, him- 
self barely escaping with his life. There seemed, now, to be 
no further hope for the Protestants: Christian IV. retreated 
to Holstein, the Elector of Brandenburg gave up his connection 
with the Union of the Saxon States, the Dukes of Mecklenburg 
were powerless, and Maurice of Hesse was compelled by the 
Emperor to abdicate. New measures in Bohemia and Austria 
foreshadowed the probable fate of Germany : the remaining 
Protestants in those two countries, including a large majority 
of the Austrian nobles, were made Catholics by force. 

In the summer of 1627 Wallenstein again marched north- 



When, where and with what force did Wallenstein march? How were the 
armies situated during the winter? When did Mansfeld march? Where did 
lie meet Wallenstein? What was tlie result of the battle? How did Wallen- 
stein follow up his success? Wliat was Mansfeld's next movement? When 
and where did he die? Who else died? How was the Protestant cause left? 
What battle was next fought, and with what result? What was done by the 
Protestant Princes? What happened in Austria? 



1628.] THE SIEGE OF STRALSUND. 383 

ward with an army reorganized and recruited to 40,000 men. 
John George of Saxony, who tried to maintain a selfish and 
cowardly neutrality, now saw his land overrun, and himself 
at the mercy of the conqueror. Brandenburg was subjected 
to the same fate; the two Mecklenburg duchies were seized as 
the booty of the Empire; and Wallenstein, marching on with- 
out opposition, plundered aid wasted Holstein, Jutland and 
Pomerania. In 1628 the Emperor bestowed Mecklenburg 
upon him: he gave himself the title of ^'Admiral of the Baltic 
and the Ocean," and drew up a plan for creating a navy out 
of the vessels of the Hanseatic League, and conquering Hol- 
land for the house of Hapsburg. After this should have been 
accomplished, his next project was to form an alliance with 
Poland against Denmark and Sweden, the only remaining 
Protestant powers. 

While the rich and powerful cities of Hamburg and Liibeck 
surrendered at his approach, the little Hanseatic town of Stral- 
sund closed its gates against him. The citizens took a solemn 
oath to defend their religious faith and their political inde- 
pendence to the last drop of their blood. Wallenstein ex- 
claimed: *'And if Stralsund were bound to Heaven with 
chains, I would tear it down!" and marched against the place. 
At the first assault he lost 1,000 men; at the second, 2,000; 
and then the citizens, in turn, made sallies, and inflicted still 
heavier losses upon him. They were soon reinforced by 2,000 
Swedes, and then Wallenstein was forced to raise the siege, 
after having lost, altogether, 12,000 of his best troops. At 
this time the Danes appeared with a fleet of 200 vessels, and 
took possession of the port of Wolgast, in Mecklenburg. 

In spite of this temporary reverse, Ferdinand II. considered 
that his absolute power was established over all Germany. 
After consulting with the Catholic Chief-Electors (one of whom, 
now, was Maximilian of Bavaria), he issued, on the 6th of 
March, 1629, an "Edict of Restitution," ordering that all the 



What was Wallonstein's march in 1627? What took place in Saxony? What 
other territory did Wallenstein conquer? What was given to him? Wliat 
title did he assume? AVhat plana did he project? How did the people of 
Stralsund act? What did Wallenstein say and do? Describe the events of 
the siege? What new enemy appeared? What did Perdiuand 11. suppose? 



384 THE EDICT OF EESTITUTION. [l629. 

former territory of the Roman Churcli, which had become 
Protestant, should be restored to Catholic hands. This re- 
quired that two archbislioprics, twelve bishoprics, and a great 
number of monasteries and churches, which had ceased to exist 
nearly a century before, should be again established ; and then, 
on the principle that the religion of the ruler should be that 
of the people, that the Protestant faith should be suppressed 
in all such territory. The armies were kept in the field to en- 
force this edict, which was instantly carried into effect in 
Southern Germany, and in the most violent and barbarous 
manner. The estates of 6,000 noblemen inFranconia, Wiirtem- 
berg and Baden were confiscated ; even the property of reigning 
princes was seized; but, instead of passing into the hands of 
the Church, much of it was bestowed upon the Emperor's 
family and his followers. The Archbishoprics of Bremen and 
Magdeburg were given to his son Leopold, a boy of 15! In 
carrying out the measure. Catholics began to suff*er, as well as 
Protestants, and the jealousy and alarm of all the smaller 
States was finally aroused. 

Wallenstein, while equally despotic, was much more arro- 
gant and reckless than Ferdinand II. He openly declared 
that reigning princes and a National Diet were no longer ne- 
cessary in Germany; the Emperor must be an absolute ruler, 
like the kings of France and Spain. At the same time he was 
carrying out his own political plans without much reference 
to the Imperial authority. Both Catholics and Protestants 
united in calling for a Diet: Ferdinand II. at first refused, but 
there were such signs of hostility on the part of Holland, 
Denmark, Sweden and even France, that he was forced to 
yield. The Diet met on the 5th of June, 1630, at Ratisbon, 
and Maximilian of Bavaria headed the universal demand for 
Wallenstein's removal. The Protestants gave testimony of 
the merciless system of plunder by which he had ruined their 
lands; the Catholics complained of the more than Imperial 



What Edict did he issue, and when? What would have been its effect? 
Whore was it enforced, and how? What estates were seized, and how dis- 
posed of? Who suffered, and what was the consequence? What did Wallen- 
Btein declare? What was called for? When did the Diet meet? What was 
demanded? 



1630.] WALLENSTEIn's REMOVAL. 385 

splendors of his court, upon which he squandered uncounted 
millions of stolen money. He travelled with 100 carriages 
and more than 1000 horses, kept 15 cooks for his table, and 
was waited upon by 16 pages of noble blood. Jealousy of 
this pomp and state, and fear of Wallenstein's ambitious de- 
signs, and not the hitter's fiendish inhumanity, induced Fer- 
dinand IL to submit to the entreaties of the Diet, and re- 
move him. 

The Imperial messengers who were sent to liis camp with 
the order of dismissal, approached him in great dread and 
anxiety, and scarcely dared to mention their business. Wallen- 
stein pointed to a sheet covered with astrological characters, 
and quietly told tliem that he had known everything in ad- 
vance; that the Emperor had been misled by the Elector of 
Bavaria, but, nevertheless, the ord^r would be obeyed. lie 
entertained them at a magnificent banquet, loaded them with 
gifts, and then sent them away. With rage and hate in his 
heart, but with all the external show and splendor of an inde- 
pendent sovereign, he retired to Prague, well knowing that 
the day was not far off when his services would be again 
needed, 

Tilly was appointed commander-in-chief of the Imperial 
armies. At the very moment, however, when Wallenstein was 
dismissed, and his forces divided among several inferior gene- 
rals, the leader whom the German Protestants could not fur- 
nish came to them from abroad. Their ruin, and the triumph 
of Ferdinand IL seemed inevitable ; twelve years of war in its 
most horrible form had desolated their lands, reduced their 
numbers to less than half, and broken their spirit. Then help 
and hope suddenly returned. On the 4th of July, 1630, 
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on the coast of 
Pomerania, with an army of 16,000 men. As he stepped upon 
the shore, he knelt in the sight of all the soldiers and prayed 



What testimony did both sides give? What "were Wallcn stein's habits of 
life? Why did Ferdinand II. accede? Describe the interview between Wallen- 
stein and the messengers. Whither did he retire? Who received the com- 
mand? What lielp came to the Protestants? How were they situated? Who 
landed in Germany, where and when? 



38G GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. [l630. 

that God would befriend him. Some of his staff could not 
restrain their tears ; whereupon he said to them : "Weep not, 
friends, but pray, for prayer is half victory!" 

Gustavus Adolphus, who had succeeded to the throne in 
1611, at the age of 17, was already distinguished as a mili- 
tary commander. He had defeated the Russians in Livonia 
and banished them from the Baltic; he had fought for three 
years with king Sigismund of Poland, and taken from him 
the ports of Elbing, Pillau and Memel, and he was now burn- 
ing with zeal to defend the falling Protestant cause in Ger- 
many. Cardinal Richelieu, in France, helped him to the op- 
portunity by persuading Sigismund to accept an armistice, 
and by furnisliing Sweden with the means of carrying on a 
war against Ferdinand II. The latter had assisted Poland, so 
that a pretext was not wanting; but when Gustavus laid his 
plans before liis council in Stockholm, a majority of the mem- 
bers advised him to wait for a new cause of offence. Never- 
theless, he insisted on immediate action. The representatives 
of the four orders of the people were convoked in the Senate- 
house, where he appeared before them with his little daughter, 
Christina, in liis arms, asked them to swear fealty to her, and 
then bade them a solemn farewell. All burst into tears when 
he said : "perhaps for ever," but no^iing could shake liis reso- 
lution to undertake the great work. 

Gustavus Adolphus was at this time 34 years old; he was 
so tall and powerfully built that he almost seemed a giant; 
his face was remarkably frank and cheerful in expression, 
his hair light, his eyes large and gray and his nose aquiline. 
Personally, he was a striking contrast to the little, haggard 
and wrinkled Tilly and the dark, silent a%d gloomy Wallen- 
stein. Ferdinand II. laughed when he heard of his landing, 
called him the "Snow King," and said that he would melt 
away after one winter; but the common people, who loved 
and trusted him as soon as they saw him, named him the 
"Lion of the North." He was no less a statesman than a 



In what manner? What was the liistory of GustaviiB Adolphus? How (lid 
Richelieu assist him? How did the Council in Stockliolm receive his plans? 
Describe his farewell. Wliat was his age and appearance? What did Ferdi- 
nand II. say of him? How did the people call him? 



1630.] 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPnUS. 



387 



soldier, and his accomplishments were unusual in a ruler of 
those days. He was a generous patron of the arts and sciences, 
spoke four languages with ease and elegance, was learned in 




STATUE OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

theology, a ready orator and — best of all — he was honest, 
devout and conscientious in all his ways. The best blood of the 
Goths from whom he was descended beat in his veins, and the 
Germans, therefore, could not look upon him as a foreigner* 
to them he was a countryman as well as a deliverer. 

"What were his qualities and accomplishments? How did the Germans look 
upon liim ? 



388 TAKING OF MAGDEBUKG. [l63U 

The Protestant princes, however, although in the utmost 
peril and humiliated to the dust, refused to unite with him. 
If their course had been cowardly and selfish before, it now 
became simply infamous. The Duke of Pomerania shut the 
gates of Stettm upon the Swedish army, until compelled by 
threats to open them ; the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony 
held themselves aloof, and Gustavus found himself obliged to 
respect their neutrality, lest they should go over to the Em- 
peror's side! Out of all Protestant Germany there came to 
him a few petty princes whose lands had been seized by the 
Catholics, and who could only offer their sw^ords. His own 
troops, however, had been seasoned in many battles; their 
discipline was perfect; and when the German people found 
that the slightest act of plunder or violence was severely 
punished, they were welcomed wherever they marched. 

Moving slowly, and with as much wisdom as caution, 
Gustavus relieved Pomerania from the Imperiid troops, by the 
end of the year. He then took Frankfort -on -the -Oder by 
storm, and forced the Elector of Brandenburg to give him the 
use of Spandau as a fortress, until he should have relieved 
Magdeburg, the only German city which had forcibly resisted 
the ''Edict of Kestitution," and was now besieged by Tilly and 
Pappenheim. As the city was hard pressed, Gustavus de- 
manded of John George, Elector of Saxony, permission to 
march through his territory: it was refused! Magdeburg was 
defended by 2300 soldiers and 5,000 armed citizens against 
an army of 30,000 men, for more than a month ; then, on the 
lOtli of May, 1631, it was taken by storm, and given up to 
the barbarous fury of Tilly and his troops. The city sank in 
blood and ashes : 30,000 of the inhabitants perished by the 
sword, or in the flames, or crushed under falling walls, or 
drowned in the waters of the Elbe. Only 4,000, who had 
taken refuge in the Cathedral, were spared. Tilly wrote to 
the Emperor: "Since the fall of Troy and Jerusalem, such a 



"What was tiie course of the Protestant princes? How was his march hin- 
dered, and by whom? Who came to join liim? What was the character of 
the Swedish troops? What were his first successes? What was the condition 
of Magdeburg? How was it defended? When was it taken, and what fol- 
lowed ? 



1631.] VIGOR OF GUSTAYUS ADOLPHUS. 389 

Victory has never been seen; and I am sincerely sorry that 
the ladies of your imperial family could not have been present 
as spectators !" 

Gustavus Adolphus has been blamed, especially by the 
admirers and defenders of the houses of Brandenburg and 
Saxony, for not having saved Magdeburg. This he might have 
done, had he disregarded the neutrality asserted by John 
George ;' but he had been bitterly disappointed at his reception 
by the Protestant princes, he could not trust them, and was 
not strong enough to fight Tilly with possible enemies in his 
rear. In fact, George William of Brandenburg immediately 
ordered him to give up Spandau and leave his territory. Then 
Gustavus did what he should have done at first: he planted 
his cannon before Berlin, and threatened to lay the city in 
ashes. This brought George William to his senses ; he agreed 
that his fortresses should be used by the Swedes, and contri- 
buted 30,000 dollars a month towards the expenses of the 
war. So many recruits flocked to the Swedish standard that 
both Mecklenburgs were soon cleared of the Imperial troops, 
the banished Dukes restored, and an attack by Tilly upon the 
fortified camp of Gustavus was repulsed with heavy losses. 

Landgrave William of Hesse Cassel was the first Protestant 
prince who voluntarily allied himself with the Swedish king. 
He was shortly followed by the unwilling but helpless John 
George of Saxony, whose territory was invaded and wasted by 
Tilly's army. Ferdinand II. had given this order, meaning 
that the Elector should at least support his troops. Tilly 
took possession of Halle, Naumburg and other cities, plundered 
and levied heavy contributions, and at last entered Leipzig, 
after bombarding it for four days. Then John George united 
his troops with those of Gustavus Adolphus, who now com- 
manded an army of 35,000 men. 

Tilly and Pappenheim had an equal force to oppose him. 
After a good deal of cautious manoeuvring, the two armies 
stood face to face near Leipzig, on the 7th of Septem- 



\rhat did Tilly write? Why was Gustavus Adolphus blamed? What is 
his justification? What happened in Brandenburg? What was George Wil- 
liam forced to do? What new advantages followed? Who next became his 
allies? What had Tilly done in Saxony? What was the Protestant strength? 



390 DEFEAT OF TILLY. [lC31. 

t)er, 1031. The Swedes were without armor, and Gustavus dis- 
tributed musketeers among the cavalry and pikemen. Banner, 
one of his generals, commanded his right, and Marshal Horn 
his left, where the Saxons were stationed. The army of Tilly 
was drawn up in a long line, and the troops wore heavy cuiras- 
ses and helmets: Pappenheim commanded the left, opposite 
Gustavus, while Tilly undertook to engage the Saxons. The 
battle-cry of the Protestants was "God with us !" — that of the 
Catholics "Jesu Maria!" Gustavus, wearing a white hat and 
green feather, and mounted on a white horse, rode up and 
down the lines, encouraging his men. The Saxons gave way 
before Tilly, and began to fly; but the Swedes, after repelling 
seven charges of Pappenheim's cavalry, broke the enemy's 
right wing, captured the cannon and turned them against 
Tilly. The Imperial army, thrown into confusion, fled in dis- 
order, pursued by the Swedes, who cut them down until night 
put an end to the slaughter. Tilly, severely wounded, nar- 
rowly escaped death, and reached Halle with only a few 
hundred men. 

This splendid victory restored the hopes of the Protestants 
everywhere. Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar had joined Gus- 
tavus before the battle: in his zeal for the cause, his honesty 
and bravery, he resembled the king, whose chief reliance, as 
a military leader, he soon became. John George of Saxony 
consented, though with evident reluctance, to march into Bo- 
hemia, where the crushed Protestants were longing for help, 
while the Swedish army advanced through Central Germany 
to the Rhine. Tilly gathered together the scattered Imperial 
forces left in the North, followed, and vainly endeavored to 
check Gustavus. The latter took Wlirzburg, defeated 17,000 
men under Charles of Lorraine, who had crossed the Rhine to 
oppose him, and entered Frankfort in triumph. Here he 
fixed his winter -quarters, and allowed his faithful Swedish 
troops the rest which they so much needed. 



When and where did the armies meet? How were the Swedes armed and 
arranged? How the Catholics? What were the hattle-cries? How did Gus- 
tavus appear? Describe the battle. What leader joined Gustavus? What 
new campaign was agreed upon? What did Tilly attempt? Whithor did 
Gustavus march, and where rcat? 



1632.] GUSTAVUS IN BAVARIA. 391 

The territory of the Archbishop of Mayence, and of other 
Catholic princes, which he overran, was not plundered or laid 
waste: Gustavus proclaimed everywhere religious freedom, 
not retaliation for the barbarities inflicted on the Protestants. 
He soon made himself respected by his enemies, and his in- 
fluence spread so rapidly that the idea of becoming Emperor 
of Germany was a natural consequence of his success. His 
wife, Queen Eleanor, had joined him : he held a splendid court 
at Frankfort, and required the German princes whom he had 
subjected to acknowledge themselves his dependents. The 
winter of 1631-32 was given up to diplomacy, rather than 
war. Richelieu began to be jealous of the increasing power 
of the Swedish king, and entered into secret negotiations with 
Maximilian of Bavaria. The latter also corresponded with 
Gustavus Adolphus, who by this time had secured the neu- 
trality of the States along the Rhine, and the support of a 
large majority of the population of the Palatinate, Baden and 
Wiirtemberg. 

In the early spring of 1632, satisfied that no arrangement 
with Maximilian was possible, Gustavus reorganized his army 
and set out for Bavaria. The city of Nuremberg received him 
with the wildest rejoicing : then he advanced upon Donauworth, 
drove out Maximilian's troops and restored Protestant worship 
in the churches. Tilly, meanwhile, had added Maximilian's 
army to his own, and taken up a strong position on the east- 
ern bank of the river Lech, between Augsburg and the Da- 
nube. Gustavus marched against him, cannonaded his position 
for three days from the opposite bank, and had partly crossed 
under cover of the smoke before his plan was discovered. On 
the 15th of April Tilly was mortally wounded, and his army 
fled in the greatest confusion: he died a few days afterwards, 
at Ingolstadt, 73 years old. 

The city of Augsburg opened its gates to the conqueror 
and acknowledged his authority. Then, after attacking Ingol- 



What was his policy along the Rhine? TVhat was the consequence of his 
popularity? What happened during the winter of 1631-32? Who became 
jealous, and what was done? What had Gustavus secured? When, and why 
did he march into Bavaria? With what success? What position had Tilly 
taken ? Describe the battle. 



392 WALLENSTEIN EESTOEED TO POWER. [l632. 

stadt Without success, he marched upon Munich, which was 
unable to resist, but was spared, on condition of paying a 
heavy contribution. The Bavarians had buried a number of 
cannon under the floor of the arsenal, and news thereof came 
to the king's ears. ''Let the dead arise!" he ordered; and 
140 pieces were dug up, one of which contained 30,000 ducats. 
Maximilian, whose land was completely overrun by the Swedes, 
would gladly have made peace, but Gustavus plainly told him 
that he was not to be trusted. While the Protestant cause 
was so brilliantly victorious in the south, John George of 
Saxony, who had taken possession of Prague without the least 
trouble, remained inactive in Bohemia during the winter and 
spring, apparently as jealous of Gustavus as he was afraid of 
Ferdinand II. 

The Emperor had long before ceased to laugh at the 
*'Snow King." He was in the greatest strait of his life: he 
knew that his trampled Austrians would rise at the approach 
of the Swedish army, and then the Catholic cause would be 
lost. Before this he had appealed to Wallenstein, who was 
holding a splendid court at Znaim, in Moravia; but the latter 
refused, knowing that he could exact better terms for his 
support by waiting a little longer. The danger, in fact, in- 
creased so rapidly that Ferdinand II. was finally compelled to 
subscribe to an agreement which practically made Wallenstein 
the lord and himself the subject. He gave the Duchies of 
Mecklenburg to Wallenstein, and promised him one of the 
Hapsburg States in Austria; he gave him the entire disposal 
of all the territory he should conquer, and agreed to pay the 
expenses of his army. Moreover, all appointments were left 
to Wallenstein, and the Emperor pledged himself that neither 
he nor his son should ever visit the former's camp. 

Having thus become absolute master of his movements, 
Wallenstein offered a high rate of payment and boundless 
chances of plunder to all who might enlist under him, and in 
two or three months stood at the head of an army of 40,000 



What cities did Gustavus take? What occurred in Munich? What answer 
did he give to Maximilian? What liad John George of Saxony done in Bo- 
hemia? What was the Emperor's situation? To whom did he appeal, and 
with what effect? What did he finally concede to Wallenstein? 



1632.] WALLEXSTEIN AND GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 393 

men, many of whom were demoralized Protestants. He took 
possession of Prague, which John George vacated at his ap- 
proach, and then waited quietly until Maximilian should be 
forced by necessity to give him also the command of the 
Bavarian forces. This soon came to pass, and then Wallen- 
stein, with 80,000 men, marched against Gustavus Adolphus, 
who fell back upon Nuremberg, which he surrounded with a 
fortified camp. Instead of attacking him, Walienstein took 
possession of the height of Zirndorf, in the neigborhood of the 
city, and strongly intrenched himself. Here the two com- 
manders lay for nine weeks, watching each other, until Gus- 
tavus, whose force amounted to about 35,000: grew impatient 
of the delay, and troubled for the want of supplies. 

He attacked Wallenstein's camp, but was repulsed with a 
loss of 2,000 men ; then, after waiting two weeks longer, he 
marched out of Nuremberg, with the intention of invading 
Bavaria. Maximilian followed him with the Bavarian troops, 
and Walienstein, wliose army had been greatly diminished by 
disease and desertion, moved into Franconia. Then, wheeling 
suddenly, he crossed the Thiiringian Mountains into Saxony, 
burning and pillaging as he went, took Leipzig, and threatened 
Dresden. John George, who was utterly unprepared for such a 
movement, again called upon Gustavus for help, and the latter, 
leaving Bavaria, hastened to Saxony by forced marches. On 
the 27th of October he reached Erfurt, where he took leave 
of his wife, with a presentiment that he should never see her 
again. 

As he passed on through Weimar to Naumhurg, the 
country- people flocked to see him, falling on their knees, 
kissing his garments, and expressing such other signs of faith 
and veneration, that he exclaimed: "I pray that the wrath of 
the Almighty may not be visited upon me, on account of this 
idolatry towards a weak and sinful mortal!" Wallenstein's 



"What force did "Walienstein raise? What was his first movement? Whither, 
and with what force, did he next march? How were the two posted? How 
long did they watch each other? Wliat success had Gustavus in his attack? 
What was his next movement? Who followed him? Where did Walienstein 
march, and what do? What did this compel Gustavus to do? How was he 
received by the people? 



39-t THE BATTLE OF LUTZEN. [l635. 

force being considerably larger than his own, he halted in 
Naumburg, to await the former's movements. As the season 
was so far advanced, Wallenstein finally decided to send 
Pappenheim with 10,000 men into Westphalia, and then go 
into winter-quarters. As soon as Gustavus heard of Pappen- 
heim's departure he marched to the attack, and the battle 
began on the morning of November 6th, 1632, at Liitzen, be- 
tween Naumburg and Leipzig. 

On both sides the troops had been arranged with great 
military skill. Wallenstein had 25,000 men and Gustavus 
20,000. The latter made a stirring address to his Swedes, 
and then the whole army united in singing Luther's grand 
hymn: "Our Lord He is a Tower of Strength." For several 
hours the battle raged furiously, without any marked advan- 
tage on either side; then the Swedes broke Wallenstein's left 
wing and captured the artillery. The Imperialists raUied and 
retook it, throwing the Swedes into some confusion. Gustavus 
rode forward to rally them and was carried by his horse 
among the enemy. A shot, fired at close quarters, shattered 
his left arm, but he refused to leave the field, and shortly 
afterwards a second shot struck him from his horse. The sight 
of the steed, covered with blood and wildly galloping to and 
fro, told the Swedes what had happened; but, instead of being 
disheartened, they fought more furiously than before, under 
the command of Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar. 

At this juncture Pappenheim, who had been summoned 
from Halle the day before, arrived on the field. His first im- 
petuous charge drove the Swedes back, but he also fell, mor- 
tally wounded, his cavalry began to waver, and the lost ground 
was regained. Night put an end to the conflict, and before 
morning Wallenstein retreated to LeijDzig, leaving all his ar- 
tillery and colors on the field. The body of Gustavus Adolphus 
was found after a long search , buried under a heap of dead, 
stripped, mutilated by the hoofs of horses, and barely recog- 



"Wliat did "Wallenstein decide? How did Gustavus then act? "When and 
•where was the battle? What was the strength of the two armies? What did 
tlie Swedes first do? Describe the circumstances of the king's deatli. What 
effect liad it on tlie Swedes? Who commanded them? What followed after 
Pappenhcim's arrival? What was the result of the battle? 



1633.] NEW LEAGUE OF THE PROTESTANTS. 395 

nizable. The loss to the Protestant cause seemed irreparable, 
but the heroic king, in falhng, had so crippled the power of 
its most dangerous enemy that its remaining adherents had a 
little breathing-time left them, to arrange for carrying on the 
struggle. 

Wallenstein was so weakened that he did not even remain 
in Saxony, but retired to Bohemia, where he vented his rage 
on his own soldiers. The Protestant princes felt themselves 
powerless without the aid of Sweden, and when the Chancellor 
of the kingdom, Oxenstierna, decided to carry on the war, 
they could not do otherwise than accept him as the head of 
the Protestant Union, in the place of Gustavus Adolphus. A 
meeting was held at Heilbronn, in the spring of 1633, at 
which the Suabian, Franconian and Rhenish princes formally 
joined the new league. Duke Bernard and the Swedish 
Marshal Horn were appointed commanders of the army. 
Electoral Saxony and Brandenburg, as before, hesitated and 
half drew back, but they finally consented to favor the move- 
ment without joining it, and each accepted 100,000 thalers a 
year from France, to pay them for the trouble. Richelieu had 
an ambassador at Heilbronn, who promised large subsidies to 
the Protestant side : it was in the interest of France to break 
the power of the Hapsburgs, and there was also a chance, in 
the struggle, of gaining another slice of German territory. 

Hostilities were renewed, and for a considerable time the 
Protestant armies were successful everywhere. William of 
Hesse and Duke George of Brunswick defeated the Imperi- 
alists and held Westphalia; Duke Bernard took Bamberg and 
moved against Bavaria; Saxony and Silesia were delivered 
from the enemy, and Marshal Horn took possession of Alsatia. 
Duke Bernard and Horn were only prevented from overrunning 
all Bavaria by a mutiny which broke out in their armies, and 
deprived them of several weeks of valuable time. 



What had Gustavus Adolphus gained? What was Wallenstein's course? 
Who became the head of the Protestant union? When did they hold a 
meeting? Who joined them? Who were appointed commanders? What was 
the course of Saxony and Brandenburg? What part did France take? What 
•vprc the Protestant successes, after this? What prevented Bavaria from being 
conquered? 



396 wallexstein's hesitation. [iC33. 

While these movements were gomg on, Wallensteiu re 
mainecl idle at Prague, in spite of the repeated and pressing 
entreaties of the Emperor that he would take the field. He 
seems to have considered his personal power secured, and was 
only in doubt as to the next step which he should take in his 
ambitious career. Finally, in May, he marched into Silesia, 
easily out-generaled Arnheim, who commanded the Protestant 
armies, but declined to follow up his advantage, and concluded 
an armistice. Secret negotiations then began between Wallen- 
steiu, Arnheim and the French ambassador: the project was 
that Wallensteiu should come over to the Protestant side, in 
return for the crown of Bohemia. Louis XIII. of France pro- 
mised his aid, but Chancellor Oxenstierna, distrusting Wallen- 
stein, refused to be a party to the plan. There is no positive 
evidence, indeed, that Wallensteiu consented: it rather seems 
that he was only courting offers from the Protestant side, in 
order to have a choice of advantages, but without binding 
himself in any way. 

Ferdinand II., in his desperation, summoned a Spanish 
army from Italy to his aid. This was a new offence to Wallen- 
steiu, since the new troops were not placed under his command. 
In the autumn of 1633, however, he felt obliged to make some 
movement. He entered Silesia, defeated a Protestant army 
under Count Thun, overran the greater part of Saxony and 
Brandenburg, and threatened Pomerania. In the meantime 
the Spanish and Austrian troops in Bavaria had been forced 
to fall back, Duke Bernard had taken Ratisbon, and the road 
to Vienna was open to him. Ferdinand II. and Maximihan of 
Bavaria sent messenger after messenger to Wallensteiu, im- 
ploring him to return from the North without delay. He moved 
with the greatest slowness, evidently enjoying their anxiety 
and alarm, crossed the northern frontier of Bavaria, and then, 
instead of marching against Duke Bernard, he turned about 
and took up his winter-quarters at Pilsen, in Bohemia. 



How did WaUenstein act? What seemed to be his policy? What did he 
do in Silesia? What negotiations were carried on, and proposals made? 
What seems to have been Wallenstein's plan? What did Ferdinand II. then 
do? How was WaUenstein obliged to act? What occurred in Bavaria? What 
messages were sent to Wallensteiu? In what manner did he then act? 



1634.J WALLENSTEIN's CONSPIKACr. 397 

Here he received an order from the Emperor, commanding 
him to march instantly against Ratisbon, and further, to send 
6,000 of his best cavalry to the Spanish army. This step 
compelled him, after a year's hesitation, to act without further 
delay. He was already charged, at Vienna, with being a 
traitor to the Imperial cause: he now decided to become one, 
in reality. He first confided his design to his brothers-in-law. 
Counts Kinsky and Terzky, and one of his Generals, Illo. 
Then a council of war, of all the chief officers of his army, was 
called on the 11th of January, 1634; Wallenstein stated what 
Ferdinand II. had ordered, and in a cunning speech commented 
on the latter's ingratitude to the army which had saved him, 
ending by declaring that he should instantly resign his com- 
mand. The officers were thunderstruck: they had boundless 
faith in Wallenstein's military genius, and they saw themselves 
deprived of glory, pay and plunder by his resignation. He 
and his associates skilfully made use of their excitement: at 
a grand banquet, the next day, all of them, numbering 42, 
signed a document pledging their entire fidelity to Wallenstein. 

General Piccolomini, one of the signers, betrayed all this 
to the Emperor, who, twelve days afterwards, appointed Ge- 
neral Gallas, another of the signers, commander in Wallen- 
stein's stead. At the same time a secret order was issued for 
the seizure of Wallenstein, Illo and Terzky, dead or alive. 
Both sides were now secretly working against each other, but 
Wallenstein's former delay told against him. He- could not go 
over to the Protestant side, unless certain important condi- 
tions were secured in advance, and while his agents were ne- 
gotiating with Duke Bernard, his own army, privately worked 
upon by Gallas and other agents of the Emperor, began to 
desert him. What arrangement was made with Duke Bernard, 
is uncertain; the chief evidence is that he, and Wallenstein 
with the few thousand troops who still stood by him, moved 
rapidly towards each other, as if to join their forces. 



What order did he receive ? What did he decide to do ? To whom did 
Ije confide his design? When was the council of war held, and what was his 
action? What step did his officers take? Who betrayed the plan? Who 
was appointed commander? What secret order was issued? What delayed 
Wallenstein's action? How was hia own army influenced? What evideuce 
was there of an agreement? 



398 ASSASINATIOX OP WALLENSTEIN. [l634. 

On the 24th of Februnry, 1634, Wallenstein reached the 
town of Eger, near the Bohemian frontier : only two or three 
more days were required, to consummate his plan. Then 
Colonel Butler, an Irishman, and two Scotch officers, Gordon 
and Leslie, conspired to murder him and his associates — no 
doubt in consequence of instructions received from Vienna. 
Illo, Terzky and Kinsky accej)ted an invitation to a banquet 
in the citadel, the following evening; but Wallenstein, who 
was unwell, remained in his quarters in the Burgomaster's 
house. Everything had been carefully prepared, in advance : 
at a given signal, Gordon and Leslie put out the lights, dra- 
goons entered the banquet-hall, and the three victiihs were 
murdered in cold blood. Then a Captain Devereux, with six 
soldiers, forced his way into the Burgomaster's house, on pre- 
tence of bearing important dispatches, cut down Wallenstein's 
servant and entered the room where he lay. Wallenstein, 
seeing that his hour had come, made no resistance, but silently 
received his death-blow. 

When Duke Bernard arrived, a day or two afterwards, he 
found Eger defended by the Imperialists. Ferdinand If. shed 
tears when he heard of Wallenstein's death, and ordered 3,000 
masses to be said for his soul ; but, at the same time, he raised 
the assassins, Butler and Leslie, to the rank of Count, and 
rewarded them splendidly for the deed. Wallenstein's immense 
estates were divided among the officers who had sworn to 
support him, and had then secretly gone over to the Emperor. 



When did WaUenstein reach Eger? Wlio conspired against him? Describe 
what happened at the banquet. In what manner was Wallenstein assassinated ? 
Who arrived afterwards? What did Ferdinand II. do? How did he dispose 
of Wallenstein's estates? 



1634.] DEFEAT OP THE PROTESTANTS. 399 



CHAPTER XXIX. 



END OF THE THIETT YEAKS WAR. 

(1634—1648.) 

The Battle of Nordlingen. — Aid furnished by France. — Treachery of Protestant 
Princes.— Offers of Ferdinand II. — Duke Bernard of Saxe- Weimar visits 
Paris. — His Agreement with Louis XIII. — His Victories. — Death of Ferdi- 
nand II. — Ferdinand III. succeeds.— Duke Bernard's Bravery, Popularity 
and Death. — Banner's Successes. — Torstenson's Campaigns. — He threatens 
Vienna. — The French Victorious in Southern Germany.—Movements for 
Peace. — Wrangel's Victories. — Capture of Prague by the Swedes.— The 
Peace of Westphalia.— Its Provisions.— The Religious Settlement. — Defeat 
of the Church of Rome.— Desolation of Germany.— Sufferings and Demo- 
ralization of the People. — Practical Overthrow of the Empire. — A Multi- 
tude of Independent States. 

The Austrian army, composed chiefly of Wallenstein's 
troops and commanded nominally by the Emperor's son , the 
Archduke Ferdinand, but really by General Gallas, marched 
upon Ratisbon and forced the Swedish garrison to surrender 
before Duke Bernard, hastening back from Eger, could reach 
the place. Then, uniting with the Spanish and Bavarian 
forces, the Archduke took Donauworth and began the siege of 
the fortified town of Nordlingen, in Wiirtemberg. Duke Bern- 
ard effected a junction with Marshal Horn, and, with his usual 
daring, determined to attack the Imperialists at once. Horn 
endeavored to dissuade him, but in vain : the battle was fought 
on the 6th of September, 1634, and the Protestants were ter- 
ribly defeated, losing 12,000 men, beside 6,000 prisoners, and 
nearly all their artillery and baggage-wagons. Marshal Horn 
was among the prisoners, and Duke Bernard barely succeeded 
in escaping with a few followers. 

The result of this defeat was that Wiirtemberg and the 
Palatinate were again ravaged by Catholic armies. Oxen- 
stierna, who was consulting with the Protestant princes in 



What success had the Austrian army? What union was made? What 
town besieged? What did Duke Bernard do? When was the battle fought? 
What were the losses? What was the result of this defeat? 

18 



400 TEEACHERY OF SAXONY. [lG35. 

Frankfort, suddenly found himself nearly deserted : only Hesse- 
Cassel, Wiirtemberg and Baden remained on his side. In this 
crisis he turned to France, which agreed to assist the Swedes 
against the Emperor, in return for more territory in Lorraine 
and Alsatia. For the first time , Richelieu found it advisable 
to give up his policy of aiding the Protestants with money, 
and now openly supported them with French troops. John 
George of Saxony , who had driven the Imperialists from his 
land and invaded Bohemia, cunningly took advantage of the 
Emperor's new danger, and made a separate treaty with him, 
at Prague, in May, 1635. The latter gave up the *'Edict of 
Bestitution" so far as Saxony was concerned, and made a few 
other concessions, none of which favored the Protestants in 
other lands. On the other hand, he positively refused to 
grant religious freedom to Austria, and excepted Baden, the 
Palatinate and Wiirtemberg from the provision which allowed 
other princes to join Saxony in the treaty. 

Brandenburg, JNIecklenburg, Brunswick, Anhalt, and many 
free cities followed the example of Saxony. The most impor- 
tant, and — apparently for the Swedes and South-German Pro- 
testants — fatal provision of the treaty was that all the States 
which accepted it should combine to raise an army to enforce 
it, the said army to be placed at the Emperor's disposal. The 
effect of this was to create a union of the Catholics and Ger- 
man Lutherans against the Swedish Lutherans and German 
Calvinists — a measure which gave Germany many more years 
of fire and blood. Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and the 
Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel scorned to be parties to such a 
compact: the Swedes and South-Germans were outraged and 
indignant: John George was openly denounced as a traitor, 
as, on the Catholic side, the Emperor was also denounced, 
because he had agreed to yield anything whatever to the Pro- 
testants. France, only, enjoyed the miseries of the situation. 



Who still held to Oxenstierna? What assistance did France apree to give? 
What did John George of Saxony now do? W^hat were the conditions of the 
treaty? What did Ferdinand II. refuse? W^hat exceptions did he make? 
"What States imitated Saxony? What was the most injurious clause of the 
treaty? What new divisioQ did it create? How did the different princes and 
I'rtrties consider it? 



1636.] DUKE BERNARD IN PARIS. 401 

Ferdinand 11. was evidently weary of the war, which had 
now lasted nearly 18 years, and he made an effort to ter- 
minate it by offering to Sweden three and a half millions of 
florins and to Duke Bernard a principality in Franconia , pro- 
vided they would accept the treaty of Prague. Both refused : 
the latter took command of 12,000 French troops and marched 
into Alsatia, while the Swedish General Banner defeated 
the Saxons, who had taken the field against him, in three suc- 
cessive battles. The Imperialists, who had meanwhile retaken 
Alsatia and invaded France, were recalled to Germany by 
Banner's victories, and Duke Bernard, at the same time, went 
to Paris to procure additional support. During the years 
1636 and 1637 nearly all Germany was wasted by the op- 
posing armies; the struggle had become fiercer and more bar- 
barous then ever, and the last resources of many States were 
so exhausted that famine and disease carried off nearly all of 
the population whom the sword had spared. 

Duke Bernard made an agreement with Louis XIIL whereby 
he received the rank of Marshal of France, and a subsidy of 
four million livres a year, to pay for a force of 18,000 men, 
which he undertook to raise in Germany. After the death of 
Gustavus Adolphus, the hope of the Protestants was centred 
on him: soldiers flocked to his standard at once, and his for- 
tunes suddenly changed. The Swedes were driven from Nor- 
thern Germany, with the aid of the Elector of Brandenburg, 
who surrendered to the Emperor the most important of his 
rights as reigning prince: by the end of 1637, Banner was 
compelled to retreat to the Baltic coast, and there await rein- 
forcements. At the same time, Duke Bernard entered Alsatia, 
routed the Imperialists, took their commander prisoner, and 
soon gained possession of all the territory with the exception 
of the fortress of Breisach, to which he laid siege. 

On the 15th of February, 1637, the Emperor Ferdinand 11. 
died, in the 59th year of his age, after having occasioned, by 



What offers did Ferdinand II. make? What were the movements of Duke 
Bernard and General Banner? What were the Imperialists compelled to do? 
What was the condition of Germany in the following years? What did Duke 
Bernard accomplish in Paris? How was he received in Germany? What 
happened to the Swedish army, and when? What were Duke Bernard's 8:ic- 
cesses ? 



402 DEATH OF DUKE BERNARD. [l639. 

his policy, the death of 10,000,000 of human beings. Yet the 
responsibility of his fatal and terrible reign rests not so much 
upon himself, personally, as upon the Jesuits who educated 
him. He appears to have sincerely believed that it was better 
to reign over a desert than a Protestant people. As a man he 
w^as courageous, patient, simple in his tastes, and without per- 
sonal vices. But all the weaknesses and crimes of his worst 
predecessors, added together, were scarcely a greater curse to 
the German people than his devotion to what he considered 
the true faith. His son, Ferdinand III., was immediately elected 
to succeed him. The Protestants considered him less subject 
to the Jesuits and more kindly disposed towards themselves, 
but they were mistaken: he adopted all the measures of his 
father, and carried on the war with equal zeal and cruelty. 

More than one army was sent to the relief of Breisach, 
but Duke Bernard defeated them all, and in December, 1638, 
the strong fortress surrendered to him. His compact with France 
stipulated that he should possess the greater part of Alsatia 
as his own independent principality, after conquering it, re- 
linquishing to France the northern portion, bordering on Lor- 
raine. But now Louis Xin. demanded Breisach, making its 
surrender to him the condition of further assistance. Bernard 
refused, gave up the French subsidy, and determined to carry 
on the war alone. His popularity was so great that his chance 
of success seemed good: he was a brave, devout and noble- 
minded man, whose strong personal ambition was always con- 
trolled by his conscience. The people had entire faith in him, 
and showed him the same reverence which they had manifested 
towards Gustavus Adolphus; yet their hope, as before, only 
preceded their loss. Li the midst of his preparations Duke 
Bernard died suddenly, on the 18th of July, 1639, only 36 
years old. It was generally believed that he had been poisoned 
by a secret agent of France, but there is no evidence that this 



When did Ferdinand II. die? What had he occasioned? Upon whom 
does the responsibility rest? What did he believe? What was his pergonal 
character? Who succeeded him? What did the Protestants imagine? How 
were they mistaken? What was the fate of Breisach? What was Duke Bern- 
ard's compact with France? What was now demanded, and with what re- 
sult? What was Duke Bernard's character? When, and at what age, did 
he die? 




BACKING OP A CITY IN THE THIRTY YEABs' WAB. 



404 BANNER'S SUCCESSES. [lG40. 

was the case, except that a French army instantly marched 
into Alsatia and held the country. 

Duke Bernard's successes, nevertheless, had drawn a part 
of the Imperialists from Northern Germany, and in 1638 
Banner, having recruited his array, marched through Branden- 
burg and Saxony into the heart of Bohemia, burning and 
plundering as he went, with no less barbarity than Tilly or 
Wallen stein. Although repulsed in 1639, near Prague, by the 
Archduke Leopold (Ferdinand III.'s brother), he only retired 
as far as Thiiringia, where he was again strengthened by Hes- 
sian and French troops. In this condition of affairs, Fer- 
dinand III. called a Diet, which met at Ratisbon in the autumn 
of 1640. A majority of the Protestant members united with 
the Catholics in their enmity to Sweden and France, but they 
seemed incapable of taking any measures to put an end to 
the dreadful war: month after month went by and nothing 
was done. 

Then Banner conceived the bold design of capturing the 
Emperor and the Diet. He made a winter march, with such 
skill and swiftness , that he appeared before the walls of Ra- 
tisbon at the same moment with the first news of his move- 
ment. Nothing but a sudden thaw, and the breaking up of 
the ice in the Danube, prevented him from being successful. 
In May, 1641, he died, his army broke up, and the Emperor 
began to recover some of the lost ground. Several of the Pro- 
testant princes showed signs of submission, and ambassadors 
from Austria, France and Sweden met at Hamburg to decide 
where and how a Peace Confjress miorht be held. 

In 1642 the Swedish army was reorganized under the 
command of Torstenson, one of the greatest of the many dis- 
tinguished generals of the time. Although he was a constant 
sufferer from gout and had to be carried in a litter, he was no 
less rapid than daring and successful in all his military opera- 



"What was generally believed? Describe Banner's campaign in 1638. By 
whom was he repelled? How far did he fall back? What did Ferdinand III. 
do? When and where did the Diet meet? What was accomplished? What 
was Banner's design, and how prevented? W^hen did he die, and what 
followed? What meeting took place at Hamburg? 



1645.] VICTORIES OF TOESTENSON. 405 

tions. His first campaign was through Silesia and Bohemia, 
ahnost to the gates of Vienna; then, returning through Saxony, 
towards the close of the year, he almost annihilated the army 
of Piccolomini before the walls of Leipzig. The Elector Jolin 
George, fighting on the Catholic side, was forced to take re- 
fuge in Bohemia. 

Denmark having declared war against Sweden, Torstenson 
made a campaign in Holstein and Jutland in 1643, in con- 
junction with a Swedish fleet on the coast, and soon brought 
Denmark to terms. The Imperialist general, Gallas, followed 
him, but was easily defeated, and then Torstenson, in turn, 
followed him back through Bohemia into Austria. In March, 
1645, the Swedish army won such a splendid victory near 
Tabor, that Ferdinand III. had scarcely any troops left to op- 
pose their march. Again Torstenson appeared before Vienna, 
and was about commencing the siege of the city, when a 
pestilence broke out among his troops and compelled him to 
retire, as before, through Saxony. Worn out with the fatigues 
of his marches , he died before the end of the year, and the 
command was given to General Wrangel. 

During this time the French, under the famous Marshals, 
Turenne and Conde, had not only maintained themselves in 
Alsatia, but had crossed the Rhine and ravaged Baden, the 
Palatinate, Wiirtemberg and part of Franconia. Although 
badly defeated by the Bavarians in the early part of 1645, 
they were reinforced by the Swedes and Hessians, and, before 
the close of the year, won such a victory over the united Im- 
perialist forces, not far from Donauworth, that all Bavaria 
lay open to them. The effect of these French successes, and 
of those of the Swedes under Torstenson, was to deprive Fer- 
dinand III. of nearly his whole military strength. John George 
of Saxony concluded a separate armistice with the Swedes, 
thus violating the treaty of Prague, which had cost his people 



Who became Swedish commander? What was he? Describe his first 
campaign. Where was John George ot Saxony? What did Torstenson do 
in 1643? How did GaUas succeed against him? What happened in March, 
1645? What saved Vienna from the Swedes? Who succeeded Torstenson, 
and when? What had the French armies done, during this time? What 
were their fortunes in 1645? What was the effect of these successes? 



406 THE PEACE COXGBESS. [l645, 

ten years of blood. He was followed by Frederick William, 
the young Elector of Brandenburg; and then Maximilian of 
Bavaria, in March, 1647, also negotiated a separate armistice 
with France and Sweden. Ferdinand III. was thus left with 
a force of only 12,000 men, the command of which, as he had 
no Catholic generals left, was given to" a renegade Calvinist 
named Melander von Holzapfel. 

The chief obstacle to peace — the power of the Hapsburgs 
— now seemed to be broken down. The wanton and tremen- 
dous effort made to crush out Protestantism in Germany , al- 
though helped by the selfishness, the cow<ardice or the miser- 
able jealousy of so many Protestant princes, had signally 
failed, owing to the intervention of two foreign powers, one 
of which was Catholic. Yet the Peace Congress, which had 
been agreed upon in 1643, had accomplished nothing. It was 
divided into two bodies: the ambassadors of the Emperor 
were to negotiate at Osnabriick with Sweden, as the represen- 
tative of the Protestant powers, and atMiinster with France, as 
the representative of the Catholic powers which desired peace. 
Two more years elapsed before all the ambassadors came 
together, and then a great deal of time was spent in arranging 
questions of rank, title and ceremony, which seem to have 
been considered much more important than the weal or woe 
of a whole people. Spain, Holland, Venice, Poland and Den- 
mark also sent representatives, and about the end of 1645 
the Congress was sufficiently organized to commence its labors. 
But, as the war was still being waged with as much fury as 
ever, one side waited and then the other for the result of 
battles and campaigns; and so two more years were squandered. 

After the armistice with Maximilian of Bavaria, the Swedish 
general, Wrangel, marched into Bohemia, where he gained so many 
advantages that Maximilian finally took sides again with the 
Emperor and drove the Swedes into Northern Germany. Then, 
early in 1648, Wrangel effected a junction with Marshal 



What did John George next do? "Who adopted the same course? How 
was Ferdinand III. left? What object of the war had failed? W^hat had tho 
Peace Congress done? How was it divided? How was the time wasted? 
"Who else sent ambassadors? When was it organized? How did the two 
Bides act? What changed tho policy of Maximilian of Bavaria? 



1648.] THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 407 

Turenne, and the combined Swedish and French armies over- 
ran all Bavaxia, defeated the Imperialists in a bloody battle, 
and stood ready to invade Austria. At the same time Konigs- 
mark, with another Swedish army, entered Bohemia, stormed 
and took half the city of Prague, and only waited the approach 
of Wrangel and Turenne to join them in a combined move- 
ment upon Vienna. But before this movement could be exe- 
cuted, Ferdinand III. had decided to yield. His ambassadors 
at Osnabriick and Miinster had received instructions , and lost 
no time in acting upon them: the proclamation of peace, after 
such heartless delays, came suddenly and put an end to thirty 
years of war. 

The Peace of Westphalia, as it is called, was concluded on 
the 24th of October, 1648. Inasmuch as its provisions ex- 
tended not to Germany alone, but fixed the political relations 
of Europe for a period of nearly a hundred and fifty years, 
they must be briefly stated. France and Sweden, as the mili- 
tary powers which were victorious in the end, sought to draw 
the greatest advantages from the necessities of Germany, but 
France opposed any settlement of the religious questions (in 
order to keep a chance open for future interference), and 
Sweden demanded an immediate and final settlement, which 
was agreed to. France received Lorraine, with the cities of 
Metz, Toul and Verdun, which she had held nearly a hundred 
years, all Southern Alsatia with the fortress of Breisach, the 
right of appointing the governors of ten German cities, and 
other rights which practically placed nearly the whole of Al- 
satia in her power. Sweden received the northern half of 
Pomerania, with the cities of Wismar and Stettin, and the 
coast between Bremen and Hamburg, together with an indem- 
nity of 5,000,000 thalers. Electoral Saxony received Lusatia 
and part of the territory of Magdeburg. Brandenburg re- 
ceived the other half of Pomerania, the archbishopric of Mag- 
deburg, the bishoprics of Minden and Halberstadt, and other 
territory which had belonged to the Roman Church. Addi- 



"What happened in 1648? What was Konigsmark's success? Who then 
hastened the conclusion of peace? What is it called? When concluded? 
How did France and Sweden act, in the Congress? What did France receive? 
Sweden? Electoral Saxony? Brandenburg? 



408 PKO VISIONS OF THE TKEATY. [l648* 

tions were made to the domains of Mecklenburg , Brunswick, 
and Hesse-Cassel, and the latter was also awarded an indem- 
nity of 600,000 thalers. Bavaria received the Upper Pala- 
tinate (north of the Danube) , and Baden , Wiirtemberg and 
Nassau were restored to their banished rulers. Other petty 
States were confirmed in the position which they had occupied 
before the war, and the independence of Switzerland and Uol- 
land was acknowledged. 

In regard to Religion, the results were much more impor- 
tant to the world. Both Calvinists and Lutherans received 
entire freedom of worship and equal civil rights with the Ca- 
tholics. Ferdinand II.'s "Edict of Restitution" was withdrawn, 
and the territories which had been secularized up to the year 
1624 were not given back to the Church. Universal amnesty 
was decreed for everything which had happened during the 
war, except for the Austrian Protestants, whose possessions 
were not restored to them. The Emperor retained the au- 
thority of deciding questions of war and peace , taxation , de- 
fences, alliances, &c. with the concurrence of the Diet: he 
acknowledged the absolute sovereignty of the several Princes 
in their own States, and conceded to them the right of form- 
ing alliances among themselves or with foreign powers! A 
special article of the treaty prohibited all persons from writ- 
ing, speaking or teaching anything contrary to its provisions. 

The Pope (at that time Innocent X.) declared the Treaty 
of Westphalia null and void , and issued a bull against its ob- 
servance. The parties to the treaty, however, did not allow 
this bull to be published in Germany. The Catholics in all 
parts of the country (except Austria, Styria and the Tyrol) 
had suffered almost as severely as the Protestants , and would 
have welcomed the return of peace upon any terms which 
simply left their faith free. 

Nothing shows so conclusively how wantonly and wickedly 



To what States were additions made? What did Bavaria get? What ban- 
ished rulers were restored? What else was decreed? How was the religious 
question settled? Who were excluded from the amnesty? What powers did 
the Emperor retain? What did he acknowledge? What special article "was 
there ? What did the Pope do, and with what effect ? How did the German 
Catholics receive the treaty ? 



1648.] DESOLATION OF GEBJklANY. 409 

the Thirty Years' War was undertaken than the fact that the 
Peace of 1648, in a religious point of view, yielded little more 
to the Protestants than the Religious Peace of Augsburg, 
granted by Charles V. in 1555. After a hundred years, the 
Church of Rome, acting through its tools, the Hapsburg Em- 
perors, was forced to give up the contest: the sword of 
slaughter was rusted to the hilt by the blood it had shed, and 
yet religious freedom was saved to Germany. It was not zeal 
for the spread of Christian truth which inspired this fearful 
Crusade against 25 millions of Protestants , for the Catholics 
equally acknowledged the authority of the Bible : it was the 
despotic determination of the Roman Church to rule the 
minds and consciences of all men, through its Pope and its 
priesthood. 

Thirty years of war! The slaughters of Rome's worst Em- 
perors, the persecution of the Christians under Nero and Dio- 
cletian, the invasions of the Huns and Magyars, the long 
struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibellines , left no such desolation 
behind them. At the beginning of the century, the population 
of the German Empire was about 30 millions: when the Peace 
of Westphalia was declared, it was scarcely more than 1 2 mil- 
lions! Electoral Saxony, alone, lost 900,000 lives in two 
years. The population of Augsburg had diminished from 
80,000 to 18,000, and out of 500,000 inhabitants, Wiirtem- 
berg had but 48,000 left. The city of Berlin contained but 
300 citizens, the whole of the Palatinate of the Rhine but 200 
farmers. In Hesse-Cassel 17 cities, 47 castles and 300 vil- 
lages were entirely destroyed by fire: thousands of villages, 
in all parts of the country, had but four or five families left 
out of hundreds, and landed property sank to about one- 
tvventieth of its former value. Franconia was so depopulated 
that an Assembly held in Nuremberg ordered the Catholic 
priests to marry, and permitted all other men to have two 
wives. The horses, cattle and sheep were exterminated in 



What shows the wicked character of the war? What was saved to Ger- 
many? What was the object of the Koraan Church? How had the population 
of Germany diminished? W^hat were the losses in Saxony? State some otlier 
particulars of the devastation. How were the villages left? Landed property ? 
What was ordered in Franconia? 



410 FAMINE AND PESTILENCE. [l648. 

many districts, the supplies of grain were at an end, even for 
sowing, and large cultivated tracts Lad relapsed into a wil- 
derness. Even the orchards and vineyards had been wantonly 
destroyed wherever the armies had passed. So terrible was 
the ravage that in a great many localities, the same amount 
of population, cattle, acres of cultivated land and general pros- 
j)erity, wa.s not restored until the year 1848, two centuries 
afterwards ! 

This statement of the losses of Germany, however, was but 
a small part of the suffering endured. Only two commanders, 
Gustavus Adolphus and Duke Bernard of Saxe- Weimar, pre- 
served rigid discipline among their troops, and prevented them 
from plundeiing the people. All others allowed, or were 
powerless to prevent, the most savage outrages. During the 
last ten or twelve years of the war both Protestants and Ca- 
tholics vied with each other in deeds of barbarity; the soldiers 
were nothing but highway robbers, who maimed and tortured 
the country people to make them give up their last remaining 
property , and drove hundreds of thousands of them into the 
woods and mountains to die miserably or live as half-savages. 
Multitudes of others flocked to the cities for refuge, only to 
be visited by fire and famine. In the year 1637, when Fer- 
dinand II. died, the want was so great that men devoured each 
other, and even hunted down human beings like deer or hares, 
in order to feed upon them. Great numbers committed suicide, 
to avoid a slow death by hunger: on the island of Riigen 
many poor creatures were found dead, with their mouths full 
of graes, and in some districts attempts were made to knead 
earth into bread. Then followed a pestilence which carried 
off a large proportion of the sui^vivors. A writer of the time 
exclaims: *'A thousand times ten thousand souls, the spirits of 
innocent children butchered in this miholy war, cry day and 
night unto God for vengeance, and cease not : while those who 
have caused all these miseries live in peace and freedom, and 
the shout of revelry and the voice of music are heard in their 
dwellings !" 

"Wliat of the cattle, grain, fields, Ac? How long before parte of the 
country were restored? Wlio preserved discipline among the troops? How 
did the soldiers act towards the people? Wliat was the condition of the 
cities? What happened in 1037? What were the sofferings by famine? 



1648.] MOEAL AND POLITICAL DECAY. 411 

In character, in intelligence and in morality, the German 
people were set back two hundred years. All branches of in- 
dustry had declined, commerce had almost entirely ceased, 
literature and the arts were suppressed, and except the astro- 
nomical discoveries of Copernicus and Kepler there was no 
contribution to human knowledge. Even the modern High- 
German language, which Luther had made the classic tongue 
of the land, seemed to be on the point of perishing. Spaniards 
and Italians on the Catholic, Swedes and French on the Pro- 
testant side, flooded the country with foreign words and ex- 
pressions, the use of which soon became an affectation with 
the nobility, who did their best to destroy their native language. 
Wallenstein's letters to the Emperor were a curious mixture 
of German, French, Spanish, Italian and Latin. 

Politically, the change was no less disastrous. The am- 
bition of the house of Hapsburg, it is true, had brought its 
own punishment; the imperial dignity was secured to it, but 
henceforth the head of the "Holy Roman Empire" was not 
much more than a shadow. Each petty State became, prac- 
tically, an independent nation, with power to establish its own 
foreign relations, make war and contract alliances. Thus Ger- 
many, as a whole, lost her place among the powers of Europe, 
and could not possibly regain it under such an arrangement : 
the Emperor and the Princes, together, had skilfully planned 
her decline and fall. The nobles who, in former centuries, had 
maintained a certain amount of independence, were almost as 
much demoralized as the people, and when every little prince 
began to imitate Louis XIV. and set up his own Versailles, 
the nobles in his territory became his courtiers and govern- 
ment officials. As for the mass of the people, their spirit was 
broken: for a time they gave up even the longing for rights 
which they had lost, and taught their children abject obedience 
in order that they might simply live. 



In what had the people gone back? What of industry and commerce? 
What was the only contribution to knowledge? How was the language af- 
fected? How were foreign words introduced? How did Wallenstein write? 
What had the Empire become? What were the petty States? Who was res- 
ponsible for the decline of Germany? How did the nobles degenerate? What 
was the state of the people? 



412 THE GERMAN STATES. [l648. 

After the Thirty Years' War, Germany was composed of 

79 Electorates, 24 Religious Principalities (Catholic), 9 princely 

Y Abbots, 10 princely Abbesses, 24 Princes with seat and vote 

' ^ in the Diet, 13 Princes without seat and vote, 62 Counts of 

*^i the Empire, 51 Cities of the Empire, and about 1000 Knights 

of the Empire. These last, however, no longer possessed any 

political power. But, without them, there were 203 more or 

less independent, jealous and conflicting States, united by a 

bond which was more imaginary than real; and this confused, 

unnatural state of things continued until Napoleon came to 

put an end to it. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

GERMANY, TO THE PEACE OF EYSWICK. 

(1648—1697.) 

Contemporary History.— Germany in the Seventeenth Century.— Influence of 
Louis XIV.— Leopold I. of Austria. — Petty Despotisms. — The Great Elec- 
tor.— Invasions of Louis XIV.— The Elector Aids Holland.— War with 
France. — Battle of FehrbeUin. — French Eavages in Baden. — The Peace of 
Nymwegen.— The Hapsburgs and HohenzoUerns.— Louis XIV. seizes Stras- 
burg. — Vienna Besieged by the Turks.— Sobieski's Victory. — Events in 
Hungary. — Prince Eugene of Savoy. — Victories over the Turks. — French 
Invasion of Germany. — French Barbarity. — Death of the Great Elector.— 
The war with France. — Peace of Ryswick.— Position of the German States. 
—The Diet. — The Imperial Court. — State of Learning and Literature. 

The Peace of Westphalia coincides with the beginning of 
great changes throughout Europe. The leading position on 
the Continent, which Germany had preserved from the treaty 
of Verdun until the accession of Charles V. — nearly 700 years 
— was lost beyond recovery: it had passed into the hands of 
France , where Louis XIY. was just commencing his long and 
brilliant reign. Spain, after a hundred years of supremacy, 
was in a rapid decline ; the new Republic of Holland was mis- 



Of what was Germany composed? How many actual States were there? 
With what does the Peace of Westphalia coincide? What were the posi- 
tions of Germany and France? 



1657.] ELECTION OF LEOPOLD I. 413 

tress of the seas, and Sweden was the great power of Nor- 
thern Europe. In England, Charles I. liad lost his throne, 
and Cromwell was at work, laying the foundation of a broader 
and firmer power thian either the Tudors or the Stuarts had 
ever built. Poland was still a large and strong kingdom, and 
Russia was only beginning to attract the notice of other na- 
tions. The Italian Republics had seen their best days: even 
the power of Venice was slowly crumbling to pieces. The 
coast of America, from Maine to Virginia, was dotted with 
little English, Dutch and Swedish settlements, only a few 
of which had safely passed through their first struggle for 
existence. 

The history of Germany, during the remainder of the seven- 
teenth century, furnishes few events upon which the intelligent 
and patriotic German of to-day can look back with any satis- 
faction. Austria was the principal power, through her terri- 
tory and population, as well as the Imperial dignity, which 
was thenceforth accorded to her as a matter of habit. The 
provision of religious liberty had not been extended to her 
people, who were now forcibly made Catholic; the former legis- 
lative assemblies , even the privileges of the nobles , had been 
suppressed, and the rule of the, Hapsburgs was as absolute a 
despotism as that of Louis XIV. When Ferdinand III. died, 
in 1657, the "Great Monarch," as the French call him, made 
an attempt to be elected his successor: he purchased the votes 
of the Archbishops of Mayence, Treves and Cologne, and might 
have carried the day but for the determined resistance of the 
Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony. Even had he been 
successful, it is doubtful whether his influence over the most 
of the German Princes would have been greater than it was in 
reality. 

Ferdinand's son, Leopold I., a stupid, weak-minded youth 
of 18, was chosen Emperor in 1658. Like his ancestor, Frede- 
rick III., whom he most resembled, his reign was as long as it 
was useless. Until the year 1705 he was the imaginary ruler of 



Spain and Holland? What was going on in England? In Poland? Russia? 
The Italian Republics? America? Why was Austria the principal power in 
Germany? How had the government been made absolute? When did Ferdi- 
nand III. die? What did Louis XIV. attempt? Who succeeded, and when? 



414 THE GERMAN PRINCES COPY FRANCE. [1G6O. 

an imaginary Empire: Vienna was a faint reflection of Madrid, 
as every other little capital was of Paris. TheHapsburgs and the 
Bourbons being absolute, all the ruling princes, even the best of 
them, introduced the same system into their territories, and 
the participation of the other classes of the people in the 
government ceased. The cities followed this example, and 
their Burgomasters and Councillors became a sort of aristo- 
cracy, more or less arbitrary in character. The condition of 
the people, therefore, depended entirely on the princes, priests 
or other officials who governed them: one State or city might 
be orderly and prosperous, while another was oppressed and 
checked in its growth. A few of the rulers were wise and 
humane: Ernest the Pious of Gotha was a father to his land, 
during his long reign; in Hesse, Bruns\vick and Anhalt learn- 
ing was encouraged , and Frederick William of Brandenburg 
set his face against the corrupting influences of France. These 
small States were exceptions, yet they kept alive what of hope 
and strength and character was left to Germany, and were the 
seeds of her regeneration in the present century. 

Throughout the greater part of the country the people re- 
lapsed into ignorance and brutality, and the higher classes as- 
sumed the stiff, formal, artificial manners which nearly all 
Europe borrowed from the court of Louis XIV. Public build- 
ings, churches and schools were allowed to stand as ruins, 
while the petty sovereign built his stately palace, laid out his 
park in the style of Versailles, and held hi^ sj)lendid and ridi- 
culous festivals. Although Saxony had been impoverished and 
almost depopulated, the Elector, John George II., squandered 
all the revenues of the land on banquets, hunting-parties, fire- 
works and collections of curiosities, until his treasury was 
hopelessly bankrupt. Another prince made his Italian singing- 
master prime minister, and others again surrendered their 
lives and the happiness of their people to influences which were 
still more disastrous. 



How long was hig reign, and what was its character? What was done by 
the other ruling princes? By the cities? How were the people affected? 
Who were good rulers during this time? What characterized the people and 
higher classes? How did the petty sovereigns act? What did the Elector oi 
Saxony do? Other princes? 



1660.] 



THE GKEAT ELECTOR. 



415 



The one historical character among the German rulers of 
this time is Frederick William of Brandenburg, who is generally 
called "The Great Elector." In bravery, energy and admin- 
istrative ability, he was the first worthy successor of Frede- 
rick of Hohen^oUern. No sooner had peace been declared 




COSTUMES OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CKNTTTEIKS. 

than he set to work to restore order to his wasted and dis- 
turbed territory: he imitated Sweden in organizing a stand- 
ing army, small at first, but admirably disciplined; he intro- 
duced a regular system of taxation , of police and of justice, 
and encouraged trade and industry in all possible ways. In 
a few years a war between Sweden and Poland gave him the 
opportunity of interfering, in the hope of obtaini»g the re- 



Who IB the one historical character of the time? 
carry out? 



What measures did lio 



416 WAR WITH LOUIS XIV. [l667. 

mainder of Pomerania. He first marched to Konigsberg , the 
capitiil of the Duchy of Prussia, which belonged to Branden- 
burg, but under the sovereignty of Poland. Allying himself 
first with the Swedes, he participated in a great victory at 
Warsaw in July, 1656, and then found it to his advantage to 
go over to the side of John Casimir, king of Poland, who of- 
fered him the independence of Prussia. This was his only gain 
fi'om the war; for, by tlie peace of 1660, he was forced to give 
up Western Pomerania, which he had in the mean time con- 
quered from Sweden. 

Louis XIV. of France was by this time aware tliat his 
kingdom had nothing to fear from any of its neighbors, and 
might easily be enlarged at their expense. In 1667, he be- 
gan liis wars of conquest, by laying claim to Brabant, and in- 
stantly sending Turenne and Conde over the frontier. A number 
of fortresses, unprepared for resistance, fell into their hands; 
but Holland, En^^land and Sweden formed an alliance aorainst 
France, and the war terminated in 1668 by the peace of Aix- 
la-Chapelle. Louis's next step was to ally himself with Eng- 
land and Sweden against Holland, on the ground that a Re- 
public, by furnishing a place of refuge for political fugitives, 
was dangerous to monarchies. In 1672 he entered Holland 
with an array of 118,000 men, took Geldern, Utrecht and 
other strongly - fortified places, and would soon have made 
himself master of the country, if its inhabitants had not shown 
themselves capable of the sublimest courage and self-sacrifice. 
They were victorious over France and England on the sea, 
and defended themselves stubbornly on the land. Even the 
German Archbishop of Cologne and Bishop of Miinster fur- 
nished troops to Louis XIV. and the Emperor Leopold pro- 
mised to remain neutral. Then Frederick William of Bran- 
denburg allied himself with Holland, and so wrought upon the 
Emperor by representing the danger to Germany from the 



What gave him a chance of getting Pomerania? "What was his first march? 
How did he change his alliance, and when? What did he gain, and lose? 
How did Louis XIV. begin his wars of conquest? Who united against him? 
When and how was the war terminated? What was his next step? On what 
pretext? When did he enter Holland, and what do? Who defeated his plan* 
aiid how? What support IkwI he in Greruian^? 



1675.] THE BATTLE OF FEHRBELLIX. 417 

success of France, that the latter sent an army under General 
Montecuccoli to the Rhine. But the Austrian troops remained 
inactive ; Louis XIV. purchased the support of the Archbish- 
ops of Mayence and Treves; Westphaha was invaded by the 
French, and in 1673 Frederick William was forced to sign a 
treaty of neutrality. 

About this time Holland was strengthened by the alliance 
of Spain, and the Emperor Leopold , alarmed at the continual 
invasions of German territory on the Upper Rhine , ordered 
Montecuccoli to make war in earnest. In 1674 the Diet form- 
ally declared war against France, and Frederick William 
marched with 16,000 men to the Palatinate, which Marshal 
Turenne had ravaged with fire and sword. The French were 
driven back and even out of Alsatia for a time ; but they re- 
turned the following year, and were successful until the month 
of July, when Turenne found his death on the soil which he 
had turned into a desert. Before this happened, Frederick 
William had been recalled in all haste to Brandenburg, where 
tlie Svvedes^ instigated by France , were wasting the land with 
a barbarity equal to Turenne's. His march was so swift that 
he found the enemy scattered: dividing and driving them be- 
fore him, on the 18th of June, 1675 » at Fehrbellin, with only 
7,000 men, he attacked the main Swedish a!rmy, numbering 
more than double that number. For three hours the battle 
raged with the greatest fury ; Frederick William fought at the 
head of his troops , who more than once cut him out from the 
ranks of the enemy, and the result was a splendid victory. 
The fame of this achievement rang through all Europe, and 
Brandenburg was thenceforth mentioned with the respect due 
to an independent power. 

Frederick William continued the war for two years longer, 
gradually acquiring possession of all Swedish Pomerania, in- 
cluding Stettin and the other cities on the coast. He even 
built a small fleet, and undertook to dispute the supremacy of 



Who assisted Holland? In what manner? "What was the Elector com- 
pelled to do? What change in affairs next occurred? What happened in 
1G74? W^hat had the French done in Alsatia and the Palatinate? Vv^hat cal- 
led Frederick William away? When and where did he attack the Swedish 
army? Describe the battle and its results. 



418 THE PEACE OF NYMWEGEX. [l679. 

Sweden on the Baltic. During this time the war with France 
was continued on the Upper Rhine, with varying fortunes. 
Though repulsed and held in check after Turenne's death, the 
French burned five cities and several hundred villages west of 
the Rhine, and in 1677 captured Freiburg in Baden. But 
Louis XIV. began to be tired of the war, especially as Holland 
proved to be unconquerable. Negotiations for peace were 
commenced in 1678, and on the 5th of February, 1679, the 
"Peace of Nymwegen" was concluded with Holland, Spain 
and the German Empire — except Brandenburg! Leopold I. 
openly declared that he did not mean to have a Vandal king- 
dom in the North. 

Frederick William at first determined to carry on the war 
alone, but the French had already laid waste Westphalia, and 
in 1679 he was forced to accept a peace which required that 
he should restore nearly the whole of Pomerania to Sweden. 
Austria, moreover, took possession of several small principali- 
ties in Silesia, which had fallen to Brandenburg by inheritance. 
Thus the Hapsburgs repaid the support which the Hohenzol- 
lerns had faithfully rendered to them for four hundred years: 
thenceforth the two houses were enemies, and they were soon 
to become irreconcilable rivals. Leopold I. again betrayed 
Germany in the peace of Nymwegen , by yielding the city and 
fortress of Freiburg to France. 

Louis XIV., nevertheless, was not content with this acqui- 
sition. He determined to possess the remaining cities of Alsa- 
tia which belonged to Germany. The Catholic Bishop of Stras- 
burg was his secret agent, and three of the magistrates of the 
city were bribed to assist. In the autumn of 1681, when 
nearly all the merchants were absent, attending the fair at 
Frankfort, a powerful French army, which had been secretly 
collected in Lorraine, suddenly appeared before Strasburg. 
Between force outside and treachery within the walls, the city 



What other Successes did the Elector gain in two years? What had the 
French done durinpf this time? When, where and liow was peace declared? 
Wliat did Leopold I. assert? What was Frederick William forced to do, why, 
and when? What had Austria done? What was now the relation of the 
Hapsburgs and the Hohenzollerns? How did Leopold I. betray Germany? 
What did Louis XIV. next determine? Who assisted his design? 



1681.] THE SEIZURE OF STRASBURG. 419 

surrendered: on the 23d of October Louis XIV. made his 
triumphant entry, and was hailed by the Bishop with the blas- 
phemous words: ''Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart 
in peace, for his eyes have seen thy Saviour!" The great Ca- 
thedral, which had long been in the possession of the Pro- 
testants , was given up to this Bishop : all Protestant func- 
tionaries were deprived of their offices, and the clergymen 
driven from the city. French names were given to the streets, 
and the inhabitants were commanded, under heavy penalties, 
to lay aside their German costume, and adopt the fashions of 
France. No official claim or declaration of war preceded this 
robbery; but the efi*ect which it produced throughout Germany 
was comparatively slight. The people had been long accustomed 
to violence and outrage, and the desi^otic independence of each 
State suppressed anything like a national sentiment. 

Leopold L called upon the Princes of the Empire to de- 
clare war against France, but met with little support. Fre- 
derick William positively refused, as he had been shamefully 
excepted from the Peace of Nymwegen. He gave as a reason, 
however, the great danger which menaced Germany from a 
new Turkish invasion, and offered to send an army to the sup- 
port of Austria. The Emperor, equally stubborn and jealous, 
declined this offer, although his own dominions were on the 
verge of ruin. 

The Turks had remained quiet during the whole of the 
Thirty Years' War, when they might easily have conquered 
Austria. In the early part of Leopold's reign they recom- 
menced their invasions, which were terminated, in 1664, by a 
truce of twenty years. Before the period came to an end, the 
Hungarians, driven to desperation by Leopold's misrule, espe- 
cially his persecution of the Protestants, rose in rebellion. The 
Turks came to an understanding with them , and early in 
1683, an army of more than 200,000 men, commanded by the 
Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha, marched up the Danube, car- 



When, and under what circumstances, was Strasburg taken? What was 
Louis XIV. 's entry into the city? How were the people treated? What ef- 
fect did this outrage produce? How did the German princes act? "What did 
Frederick William allege, and offer? What were the relations of Austria and 
Turkey? W^hat happened in Hungary? 



420 THE TURKS BEFORE VIENNA. [l683. 

rying everything before it, and encamped around the walls of 
Yieiina. There is good evidence that the Sultan, Mahmoud IV., 
was strongly encouraged by Louis XIV. to make this move- 
ment. Leopold fled at the approach of the Turks, leaving his 
capital to its fate. For two months Count Stahremberg, with 
only 7,000 armed citizens and 6,000 mercenary soldiers under 
his command, held the fortifications against the overwhelming 
force of the enemy; then, when further resistance was becom- 
ing hopeless, help suddenly appeared. An army commanded 
by Duke Charles of Lorraine, another under the Elector of 
Saxony, and a third, composed of 20,000 Poles, headed by 
their king, John Sobieski, reached Vienna about the same time. 
The decisive battle was fought on the 12th of September, 
1683, and ended with the total defeat of the Turks, who fled 
into Hungary, leaving their camp, treasures and supplies to 
the value of 10,000,000 dollars in the hands of the conquerors. 
The deliverance of Vienna was due chiefly to John Sobieski, 
yet, when Leopold L returned to the city which he had de- 
serted, he treated the Polish king with coldness and haugh- 
tiness, never once thanking him for his generous aid. The 
war was continued , in the interest of Austria , by Charles of 
Lorraine and Max Emanuel of Bavaria, until 1687, when a 
great victory at Mohacs in Hungary forced the Turks to re- 
treat beyond the Danube. Then Leopold L took brutal ven- 
geance on the Hungarians , executing so many of their nobles 
that the event is called " the Shambles of Eperies , " from the 
town where it occurred. The Jesuits were allowed to put 
down Protestantism in their own way; the power and national 
pride of Hungary were trampled under foot, and a Diet held 
at Presburg declared that the crown of the country should 
thenceforth belong to the house of Hapsburg. This episode 
of the history of the time, the taking of Strasburg by Louis XI V., 
the treatment of Frederick William of Brandenburg, and 
other contemporaneous events, must be borne in mind. 



Deacribe the march of the Turks upon Vienna. Who encouraged the 
Sultan Y How, and by whom, was Vienna defended? Who came to her relief? 
WJieu was the battle fought, and with what result? How did Leopold I. re- 
ceive John Sobieski? What were the further fortunes of the war? What was 
Leopold I.'s vengeance in Hungary? How was the country subjected? 



422 RENEWED WAH WITH FRANCS. [lC8«. 

since they are connected with much that has taken place in 
our own day. 

In spite of the defeat of the Turks in 1687, they were en- 
couraged by France to continue the war. Max Emanuel took 
Belgrade in 1689, the Margrave Ludvvig of Baden won an 
important victory, and Prince Eugene of Savoy (a grand- 
nephew of Cardinal Mazarin, whom Louis XIV. called, in deri- 
sion, the *' Little Abbe," and refused to give a military com- 
mand) especially distinguished himself as a soldier. After ten 
years of varying fortune, the war was brought to an end by 
the magnificent victory of Prince Eugene at Zenta, in 1697. 
It was followed by the Treaty of Carlo witz, in 1699, in which 
Turkey gave up Transylvania and the Slavonic provinces to 
Austria, Morea and Dalmatia to Venice, and agreed to a truce 
of 25 years. 

While the best strength of Germany was engaged in this 
Turkish war, Louis XIV. was busy in carrying out his plans 
of conquest. He claimed the Palatinate of the Rhine for his 
brother, the Duke of Orleans, and also attempted to make one 
of his agents Archbishop of Cologne. In 1686, an alliance 
was formed between Leopoid I., several of the German States, 
Holland, Spain and Sweden, to defend themselves against the 
aggressions of France, but nothing was accomplished by the 
negotiations which followed. Finally, in 1688, two power- 
ful French armies suddenly appeared upon the Rhine: one 
took possession of the territory of Treves and Cologne, the 
other marched through the Palatinate into Franconia and 
Wiirtemberg. But the demands of Louis XIV. were not ac- 
ceeded to ; the preparation for war was so general on the part 
of the allied countries that it was evident his conquests could 
not be held ; so he determined , at least , to ruin the territory 
before giving it up. 

No more wanton and barbarous deed was ever perpetrated. 
The "Great Monarch," the model of elegance and refinement 



What circumstances are connected with modern history? Why did the 
Turks continue the war? When was Belgrade taken? Who distinguished 
himself? When did the war end? What were the provisions of the Treaty 
of Carlowitz? What was Louis XIV. doing at this time? What alliance was 
formed, and when? What happened in 1G88? How was the plan defeated, 
and what was chen done? 



1688.] BARBARITY OF LOUIS XIV. 423 

for all Europe, was guilty of brutality beyond what Is recorded 
of the most savage chieftains. The vines were pulled up by 
the roots and destroyed; the fruit-trees were cut down, the 
villages burned to the ground, and 400,000 persons were 
made beggars, besides those who were slain in cold blood. 
The castle of Heidelberg, one of the most splendid monuments 
of the Middle Ages in all Europe, was blown up with gunpow- 
der; the people of Mannheim were compelled to pull down 
their own fortifications, after which their city was burned; 
Speyer, with its grand and venerable Cathedral, was razed to 
the ground, and the bodies of the Emperors buried there were 
exhumed and plundered. While this was going on, the Ger- 
man Princes, with a few exceptions (the "Great Elector" being 
the prominent one) , were copying the fashions of the French 
Court, and even trying to unlearn their native language ! 

Frederick William of Brandenburg, however, was spared 
the knowledge of the worst features of this outrage. He died 
the same year, after a reign of 48 years, at the age of 68. The 
latter years of his reign were devoted to the internal develop- 
ment of his State. He united the Oder and Elbe by a canal, 
built roads and bridges, encouraged agriculture and the 
mechanic arts, and set a personal example of industry and 
intelligence to his people while he governed them. His posses- 
sions were divided and scattered, reaching from Konigsberg to 
the Rhine, but, taken collectively, they were larger than any 
other German State at the time, except Austria. None of the 
smaller German rulers before him took such a prominent part 
in the intercourse with foreign nations. He was thoroughly 
German, in his jealousy of foreign rule; but this did not pre- 
vent him from helping to confirm Louis XIV. in his robbery 
of Strasburg, out of revenge for his own treatment by Leo- 
pold I. When personal pride or personal interest was con- 
cerned, the HohenzoUerns were hardly more patriotic than the 
Hapsburgs. 



What was the character of the deed? How was the country desolated? 
What was done at Heidelberg, Mannheim and Speyer? What were the Ger- 
man Princes doing at this time? When did the Great Elector die? What 
was done, in the later years of his reign ? What was the extent of his terri- 
tory? How was he distinguished? How did he assist in injuring Germany? 

19 



424 THE PEACE OF RYSWICK. [l697. 

The German Empire raised an army of about G0,000 men, 
to carry on the war with France ; but its best commanders, 
Max Emanuel and Prince Eugene, were fighting the Turks, 
and the first campaigns were not successful. The other allied 
powers, Holland, England and Spain, were equally unfortunate, 
while France, compact and consolidated under one despotic 
head, easily held out against them. In 1693, finally, the 
Margrave Ludwig of Baden obtained some victories in South- 
ern Germany which forced the French to retreat beyond the 
Rhine. The seat of war was then gradually transferred to 
Flanders, and the task of conducting it fell upon the foreign 
allies. At the same time there were battles in Spain and 
Savoy, and sea-fights in the British Channel. Although the 
fortunes of Germany were influenced by these events, they be- 
long properly to the history of other countries. Victory in- 
clined sometimes to one side and sometimes to the other; the 
military operations were so extensive that there could be no 
single decisive battle. 

All parties became more or less weary and exhausted, and 
the end of it all was the Treaty of Ryswick, concluded on the 
20th of September, 1697. By its provisions France retained 
Strasburg and the greater pai't of Alsatia , but gave up Frei- 
burg and her other conquests east of the Rhine, in Baden. 
Lorraine was restored to its Duke, but on conditions which 
made it practically a French province. The most shameful 
clause of the Treaty was one which ordered that the districts 
which had been made Catholic by force during the invasion 
were to remain so. 

Nearly every important German State, at this time, had 
some connection or alliance which subjected it to foreign in- 
fluence. The Hapsburg possessions in Belgium were more 
Spanish than German ; Pomerania and the bishoprics of Bremen 
and Verden were under Sweden; Austria and Hungary were 
united; Holstein was attached to Denmark, and in 1697 Au- 



What army was raised by the Empire? "What was the condition of the 
allied powers? Of France ? Who was victorious, and when? Where was 
the seat of war then transferred? What was the end of it, and when? What 
were its chief provisions? What was its most shameful clause? How wero 
the German States now connected? Mention some instances. 



1697.] DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 425 

gustus the Strong of Saxony, after the death of John Sobieski 
purchased his election as king of Poland by enormous bribes 
to the PoHsh nobles. Augustus the Strong, of whom Carlyle 
says that "he lived in this world regardless of expense," out- 
did his predecessor , John George II. , in his monstrous imita* 
tion of French luxury. For a time he not only ruined but de- 
moralized Saxony, starving the people by his exactions, and 
living in a style which was infamous as well as reckless. 

The National German Diet, from this time on, was no 
longer attended by the Emperor and ruling Princes, but only 
by their official representatives. It was held, permanently, in 
Katisbon, and its members spent their time mostly in absurd 
quarrels about forms. When any important question arose, 
messengers were sent to the rulers to ask their advice, and s/^ 
much time was always lost that the Diet was practically'' use- 
less. The Imperial Court , established by Maximilian I. , was 
now permanently located at Wetzlar, not far from Frankfort^ 
and had become as slow and superannuated as the Diet. The 
Emperor, in fact, had so little concern with the rest of the 
Empire, that his title was only honorary; the revenues it 
brought him were about 13,000 florins annually. The only 
change which took place in the political organization of Ger- 
many, was that in 1692 Ernest Augustus of Hannover (the 
father of George I. of England) was raised to the dignity of 
Elector, which increased the whole number of Electors, tem- 
poral and spiritual, to nine. 

During the latter half of the seventeenth century, learning, 
literature and the arts received little encouragement in Ger- 
many. At the petty courts there was more French spoken 
than German, and the few authors of the period — with the 
exceptionof Spener,Francke, and other devout religious writers 
— produced scarcely any works of value. The philosopher. 
Leibnitz, stands alone as the one distinguished intellectual 



Who became king in Poland, when and how? "What was the character of 
Augustus the Strong? Who attended tlie German Diet? Where, and how. 
was it held? How were questions decided? Where was the Imperial Court? 
What was the Emperor's position, and revenue? What political change tooV 
place, and when? What was the intellectual condition of Germany? What 
were the authors of the period ? 



426 TROUBLES IN SWEDEN AND SPAIN. [l700. 

man of his age. The upper classes were too French and too 
demoralized to assist in the better development of Germany^ 
and the lower classes were still too poor, oppressed and spirit- 
less to think of helping themselves. Only in a few States, 
chief among them Brunswick , Hesse, Saxe-Gotha and Saxe- 
Weimar, were the Courts on a moderate scale, the government 
tolerably honest, and the people prosperous. 



CHAPTER XXXL 

THE WAE OE THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 

(1697—1714.) 

New European Troubles.— Intrignes at the Spanish Court. — Leopold I. declares 
war against France.— Frederick I. of Brandenburg becomes King of 
Prussia.— German States allied with France,— Prince Eugene in Italy.— 
Operations on the Ehine.— Marlborough enters Germany.— Battle of Blen- 
heim. — Joseph I. Emperor. — Victory of Bamillies.— Battle of Turin. — 
Victories in Flanders.— Louis XIV. asks for Peace.— Battle of Malplaquet. 
— Kenewed Offer of France.— Stupidity of Joseph I.— Recall of Marlborough. 
— Karl VI. Emperor.— Peace of Utrecht.— Karl VI. 's Obstinacy.— Prince 
Eugene's Appeal.— Final Peace. — Lobs of Alsatia. — The Kingdom of Sar- 
dinia. 

The beginning of the new centui-y brought with it new 
troubles for all Europe, and Germany — since it was settled 
that her Emperors must be Hapsburgs — was compelled to 
share in them. In the North, Charles XII. of Sweden and 
Peter the Great of Russia were fighting for "the balance of 
•power"; in Spain king Charles II. was responsible for a new 
cause of war, simply because he was the last of the Hapsburgs 
in a direct line, and had no children! Louis XIV. had married 
his elder sister and Leopold I. his younger sister; and both 
claimed the right to succeed him. The former, it is true, 



Who was tlie one great ma'. ? Which wore the best Statos , and in what 
way? 

What did the new century bring? What was going on in the North? What 
was the dilemma in Spain? Wlio were Cliarles II. 's brothers-in-law ? 



1701.1 THE FIRST KING OF PRUSSIA. 427 

had renounced. al] claim to the throne of Spain when he mar- 
ried, but he put forth his grand-son, Duke PhiHp of Anjou, 
as the candidate. Ihere were two parties at the Court of 
Madrid, — the French, at the head of which was Louis XIV.'s 
ambassador, and the Austrian, directed by Charles II.'s mother 
and wife. The other nations of Europe were opposed to any 
division of Spain between the rival claimants, since the pos- 
session of even half her territory (which still included Naples, 
Sicily, Milan and Flanders, besides her enormous colonies in 
America) would have made either France or Austria too 
powerful. Charles IL, however, was persuaded to make a will 
appointing Philip of Anjou his successor, and when he died, 
in 1700, Louis XIV. immediately sent his grandson over the 
Pyrenees and had him proclaimed as king Philip Y. of Spain. 
Leopold L thereupon declared war against France, in the 
hope of gaining the crown of Spain for his son, the Archduke 
Karl. England and Holland made alliances with him, and he 
w^as supported by most of the German States. The Elector, 
Frederick IlL of Brandenburg (son of "the Great Elector"), 
who was a very proud and ostentatious prince, furnished his 
assistance on condition that he should be authorized by the 
Emperor to assume the title of King. Since the traditional 
customs of the German Empire did not permit another king 
than that of Bohemia among the Electors, Frederick was 
obliged to take the name of his detached Duchy of Prussia, in- 
stead of Brandenburg. On the 18th of January, 1701, he 
crowned himself and his wife at Konigsberg, and was thence- 
forth called king Frederick L of Prussia. But his capital was 
still Berlin, and thus the names of ''Prussia" and "the Prus- 
sians" — -which came from a small tribe of mixed Slavonic 
blood — were gradually transferred to all his other lands and 
their population, German, and especially Saxon, in character. 
Prince Eugene of Savoy saw the future with a prophetic 



"What was Louis XIY.'s position ? "What two parties wore there at Madrid ? 
Whnt part did the other nations take? "What did Charles II. do? What 
happened when he iied? Why did Leopold I. declare war? Who joined 
him? Wliat did Frederick III. of Brandenburg exact? What name was he 
obliged to take, and why? When and where was he crowned? How was the 
name of "Prussia'* thereby extended? 



428 AVAR WITH LOUIS XIV. [l702. 

glance when he declared: "the Emperor, in his own interest, 
ought to have hanged the Ministers who counselled him to 
make this concession to the Elector of Brandenburg !" 

Q'he Elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria and his brother, 
the Archbishop of Cologne, openly espoused the cause of 
France. Several smaller princes were also bribed by 
Louis XIV., but one of them, the Duke of Brunswick, after 
raising 12,000 men for France, was compelled by the Elector 
of Hannover to add them to the German army. With such 
miserable disunion at home, Germany would have gone to 
pieces and ceased to exist, but for the powerful participation 
of England and Holland in the war. The English Parliament, 
it is true, only granted 10,000 men at first, but as soon as 
Louis XIV. recognized the exiled Stuart, Prince James, as 
rightful heir to the throne of England, the grant w^as enlarged 
to 40,000 soldiers and an equal number of sailors. The value 
of this aid was greatly increased by the military genius of the 
English commander, the famous Duke of Marlborough. 

The war was commenced by Louis XIV. who suddenly 
took possession of a number of fortified places in Flanders, 
which Max Emanuel of Bavaria, then governor of the province, 
had purposely left unguarded. While the recovery of this 
territory was left to England and Holland, Prince Eugene 
undertook to drive the French out of Northern Italy. He 
made a march across the Alps as daring as that of Napoleon, 
transporting cannon and supplies by paths only known to the 
chamois-hunters. For nearly a year he was entirely successful; 
then, having been recalled to Vienna, the French were rein- 
forced and recovered their lost ground. An important result 
of the campaign, however, w^as that Victor Amadeus, Duke of 
Savoy (ancestor of the present king of Italy), quarreled with 
the French, with whom he had been allied, and joined the 
German side. 



What did Prince Eugene say of this act? Who took the side of France? 
What happened to the Elector of Brunswick? Wliat prevented the disunion 
of Germany? What help did the English Parliament give? What increased 
its value? How was the war begun by Louis XIV.? What did Prince Eu- 
gene undertake? What march did he make? What success had he? What 
other result of the campaign was there? 



1703.J 



FIGHTING ALONG THE KHINE. 



429 



The struggle now became more and more confused, and 
we cannot undertake to follow all its entangled episodes. 
France encouraged a rebellion in Hungary; the Archbishop of 




HAXtliBOBOUGH, PEINCE EUGENE AND LUDWIG OF BADEN. 

Cologne laid waste the Lower Rhine; Max Emanuel seized 
Ulra and held it for France; Marshal Yillars, in 1703, pressed 
back Ludwig of Baden (who had up to that time been suc- 
cessful in the Palatinate and Alsatia), marched through the 
Black Forest and effected a junction with the Bavarian army. 



What other movements followed? 



430 THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, [l704 

His plan was to cross the Alps and descend into Italy in the 
rear of the German forces which Prince Eugene had left there; 
but the Tyrolese rose against him and fought with such des- 
peration that he was obliged to fall back on Bavaria. 

Marshal Yillars and Max Emanuel now commanded a 
combined army of 60,000 men, in the very heart of Germany. 
They had defeated the Austrian commander, and Ludwig of 
Baden's army was too small to take the field against them. 
But the Duke of Marlborough had been brilliantly victorious 
in Belgium and on the Lower Rhine, and he was thus able to 
march on towards the Danube. Prince Eugene hastened from 
Hungary with such troops as he could collect, and the two, 
with Ludwig of Baden, were strong enough to engage the 
French and Bavarians. They met on the 13th of August, 1704, 
on the plain of the Danube, near the little village of Blenheim. 
After a long and furious battle, the French left 14,000 men 
upon the field, lost 13,000 prisoners, and fled towards the 
Rhine in such haste that scarcely one-third of their army 
reached the river. Marlborough and Eugene were made 
Princes of the German Empire, and all Europe rang with 
songs celebrating the victory, in which Marlborough's name 
appeared as "Malbrook," His proposal to follow up the vic- 
tory with an invasion of France was rejected by the Emperor, 
and the war, which might then have been pressed to a termi- 
nation, continued for ten years longer. 

In 1 705 Leopold I. relieved Germany, by his death, of the 
dead weight of his incapacity. He was succeeded by his son, 
Joseph I., who possessed, at least, a little ordinary common- 
sense. He manifested it at once by making Prince Eugene his 
counsellor, instead of surrounding him with spies, as his jea- 
lous and spiteful father had done. Both sides were preparing 
for new movements, and the principal event for the year took 
place in Spain, where the Archduke, who had been conveyed 
to Barcelona by an English fleet, obtained possession of Cata- 



"What was the plan of MarshaU Villars? How was it defeated? What was 
now his position? Who united against him? Where and when did they 
meet? With what result ? What did Marlborough win by this victory? Wliat 
proposal did he make? When did Leopold I. die, and who suocoodod? How 
did Joseph I. niaiiifoet his suneu? 



1706.] Eugene's victory at turin. 431 

Ionia and Arragon, and threatened Philip V. with the loss of 
his crown. The previous year, 1704, the English had taken 
Gibraltar. 

In 1706 operations were recommenced, on a larger scale, 
and with results which were very disastrous to the plans of 
France. Marlborough's great victory at Ramillies, on the 
23d of May, gave him the Spanish Netherlands, and enabled 
the Emperor to declare Max Emanuel and the Archbishop of 
Cologne outlawed. The city of Turin, held by an Austrian 
garrison, was besieged, about the same time, by the Duke of 
Orleans, with 38,000 men. Then Prince Eugene hastened 
across the Alps with an army of 24,000, was reinforced by 
13,000 more under Victor Amadeus of Savoy, and on the 
7 th of September attacked the French with such impetuosity 
that they were literally destroyed. Among the spoils were 
211 cannon, 80,000 barrels of powder, and a great amount of 
money, horses and provisions. By this victory Prince Eugene 
became also a hero to the German people, and many of their 
songs about him are sung at this day. The "Prussian" troops, 
under Prince Leopold of Dessau, especially distinguished them- 
selves ; their commander was afterwards one of Frederick the 
Great's most famous generals. 

The first consequence of this victory was an armistice with 
Louis XIV., so far as Italian territory was concerned; never- 
theless, a part of the Austrian army was sent to Naples in 1707, 
to take possession of the country in the name of Spain. The 
Archduke Karl, after some temporary successes over Philip V., 
was driven back to Barcelona, and Louis XIV. then offered 
to treat for peace. Austria and England refused: in 1708 
Marlborough and Prince Eugene, again united, won another 
victory over the French at Oudenarde, and took the strong- 
hold of Lille, which had been considered impregnable. The 
road to Paris was apparently open to the allies, and Louis XIV. 



What was happening in Spain? What conquest had the English made? 
When was the war recommenced and with what results? Wiiat was Marl- 
borougli's next victory? Its fruits? Describe the battle of Turin. Wluit were 
the spoils? Who became famous? "What general and troops distinguished 
tbemflolvos? What wae the consequence of this victory? What ooourred in 
Spain? What other victory in 1708? 



432 PEACE EEJECTED BY JOSEPH I. [l709. 

offered to give up his claim, on behalf of Philip V., to Spain, 
Milan, the Spanish- American colonies and the Netherlands, 
provided Naples and Sicily were left to his grandson. Marl- 
borough and Prince Eugene required, in addition, that he 
should expel Philip from Spain, in case the latter refused to 
conform to the treaty. Louis XIV.'s pride was wounded by 
this demand, and the negotiations were broken off. 

With great exertion a new French army was raised, and 
Marshal Villars placed in command. But the two famous 
commanders, Marlborough and Eugene, achieved such a new 
and crushing victory in the battle of Malplaquet, fought on 
the 11th of September, 1709, that France made a third at- 
tempt to conclude peace. Louis XIV. now offered to with- 
draw his claim to the Spanish succession, to restore Alsatia 
and Strasburg to Germany, and to -pay one million livres a 
month towards defraying the expenses of expelling Philip Y. 
from Spain. It will scarcely be believed that this proposal, 
so humiliating to the extravagant pride of France, and which 
conceded more than Germany had hoped to obtain, was re- 
jected! The cause seems to have been a change in the for- 
tunes of the Archduke Karl in Spain : he was again victorious, 
and in 1710 held his triumphal entry in Madrid. Yet it is 
difficult to conceive what further advantages Joseph I. expected 
to secure, by prolonging the war. 

Germany was soon punished for this presumptuous refusal 
of peace. A Court intrigue, in England, overthrew the Whig 
Ministry and gave the power into the hands of the Tories: 
Marlborough was at first hampered and hindered in carrying 
out his plans, and then recalled. While keeping up the out- 
ward forms of her alliance with Holland and Germany, Eng- 
land began to negotiate secretly with France, and thus the 
chief strength of the combination against Louis XI Y. was 
broken. In 1711 the Emperor Joseph I. died, leaving no 
direct heirs, and the Archduke Karl became his successor to 
the throne. The latter immediately left Sjiain, was elected 



What offer did Louis XIV. make? What broke off the negotiations? What 
followed in 1709? What did Louis XIV. now offer to do? How was the 
olfer received? What seems to have been the reason? Wliat chanj^es took 
place in England? What part did England now play? When did Joseph I. 
die, and who succeeded? 



1713.] THE PEACE OF UTEECHT. 433 

before he reached Germany, and crowned in Mayence on the 
22d of September, as Karl VI. Although, by deserting Spain, 
he had seemed to renounce his pretension to the Spanish 
crown, there was a general fear that the success of Germany 
would unite the two countries, as in the time of Charles V., 
and Holland's interest in the war began also to languish. 
Prince Eugene, without English aid, was so successful in the 
early part of 1712 that even Paris seemed in danger; but 
Marshal Villars, by cutting ofif all his supplies, finally forced 
him to retreat. 

During this same year negotiations were carried on be- 
tween France, England, Holland, Savoy and Prussia. They 
terminated, in 1713, in the Peace of Utrecht, by which the 
Bourbon, Philip V., was recognized as king of Spain and her 
colonies , on condition that the crowns of Spain and France 
should never be united. England received Gibraltar and the 
island of Minorca from Si3ain, Acadia, Nova Scotia, Newfound- 
land and the Hudson's Bay Territory from France, and the re- 
cognition of her Protestant monarchy. Holland obtained the 
right to garrison a number of strong frontier fortresses in 
Belgium, and Prussia received Neufchatel in Switzerland, some 
territory on the Lower Bhine, and the acknowledgment of 
Frederick I.'s royal dignity. 

Karl VI. refused to recognize his rival, Philip V., as king 
of Spain, and therefore rejected the Treaty of Utrecht. But 
the other princes of Germany were not eager to prolong the 
war for the sake of gratifying the Hapsburg pride. Prince 
Eugene, who was a devoted adherent of Austria, in vain im- 
plored them to be united and resolute. "I stand," he wrote, 
"like a sentinel (a watch!) on the Rhine; and as mine eye 
wanders over these fair regions, I think to myself how happy, 
and beautiful, and undisturbed in the enjoyment of Nature's 
gifts they might be, if they possessed courage to use the 
strength which God hath given them. "With an army of 



What did the Archduke Karl do? What general fear arose? What were 
Prince Eugene's fortunes, in 1712? What negotiations were carried on? When 
terminated? Wliat were the provisions ? Wliat did England receive? Holland? 
Prussia? Why did Karl VI. reject the treaty? What did the German prin- 
ces do ? 



434 



PKINCE EUGENE. 



[l713. 



200,000 men I would engage to drive the French out of Ger- 
many, and would forfeit my life if I did not obtain a peace 




PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY. 



which should gladden our hearts for the next twenty years." 
With such forces as he could collect he carried on the war 
along the Upper Rhine, but he lost the fortresses of Landau 



What appeal did Prmce Eugene make? 



714.] END OF THE WAR. 435 

and Freiburg. Louis XIV., however, who was now old and 
infirm, was very tired of the war, and after these successes, 
he commissioned Marshal Villars to treat for peace with 
Prince Eugene. The latter was authorized by the Emperor 
to negotiate: the two commanders met at Rastatt, in Baden, 
and in spite of the unreasonable stubbornness of Karl VI. a 
treaty was finally concluded on the 7th of March, 1714. 

Austria received the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, 
Mantua and the Island of Sardinia. Freiburg, Old-Breisach 
and Kehl were restored to Germany, but France .retained 
Landau, on the west bank of the Rhine, as well as all Alsatia 
and Strasburg. Thus the recovery of the latter territory, 
which Joseph I. refused to accept in 1710, was lost to Ger- 
many until the year 1870. 

By the Treaty of Utrecht, Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy 
had received Sicily as an independent kingdom. A few years 
afterwards he made an exchange with Austria, giving Sicily 
for Sardinia: thus originated the Kingdom of Sardinia, which 
continued to exist until the year 1860, when Victor Emanuel 
became king of Italy. 

CHAPTER XXXIL 

THE RISE OP PRUSSIA. (1714 — 1 740.) 

Wars of Charles XII. of Sweden.— Invasion of Saxony. — Enlargement of 
Prussia and Hannover. — The "Pragnaatic Sanction".— Sacrifices of Austria. 
— Battle of Peter wardein.— Treaty of Passarowitz.— War in Italy.— Frede- 
rick I. of Prussia.— Frederick William I. — His Character and Habits. — 
His Policy as a Ruler.— His Giant Body-Guards. — The Tobacco College. — 
Decay of Austria. — The other German States. — First Emigration to America. 
— War of the Polish Succession. — French Invasion.— German Disunion. — 
The Treaty of Vienna. — Marriage of Maria Theresa.— Disastrous war with 
Turkey.— Prussia at the Death of Frederick William I. — Austria at the 
Death of Karl VI. 

While the War of the Spanish Succession raged along 
the Rhine, in Bavaria and the Netherlands, the North of Ger- 



How did he carry on the war? Who were commissioned to make peace? 
When and where was it concluded? What did Austria receive? What did 
France retain? How long did Alsatia remain French? How was the Diike 
of Saxony favored? What kingdom arose, and how long did it last? 




436 CHAELES XII. IN SAXONY. [l706. 

riiany was convulsed by another and very different struggle. 
The ambitious designs of Charles XII. of Sweden, who suc- 
ceeded to the throne in 1697, aroused the jealousy and re- 
newed the old hostility, of Denmark, Russia and Poland , and 
in 1700 they formed an alliance against Sweden. Denmark 
began the war, the same year, by invading Holstein-Gottorp, 
the Duke of which was the brother-in-law of Charles XII. The 
latter immediately attacked Copenhagen, and conquered a peace. 
A few months afterwards he crushed the power of Peter the 
Great, in the battle of Narva, and was then free to march 
against Poland. Augustus the Stronnr was no match for the 

o o o 

young Northern hero, who compelled the Polish nobles to de- 
pose him and elect Stanislas Lecszinsky in his stead, then 
marched through Silesia into Saxony, in the year 1706, and 
from his camp near Leipzig dictated his own terms to 
Augustus. 

A year later, having exhausted what resources were left 
to the people after the outrageous exactions of their own Elec- 
tors, Charles Xll. evacuated Saxony with an army of 40,000 
men, many of them German recruits, and marched through 
Poland on his way to the fatal field of Pultowa. The imme- 
diate consequences of his terrible defeat there, in 1709, were 
that Peter the Great took possession of the Baltic provinces, 
and prepared to found his new capital of St. Petersburg on 
the Neva. Then Denmark and Saxony entered into an alliance 
with Russia, Augustus the Strong was again placed on the 
throne of Poland, and the Swedish-German provinces on the 
Baltic and the North Sea were overrun and ravaged by the 
Danish and Russian armies. Towards the end of the year 
1714, after peace had been concluded with France, Charles XII. 
suddenly appeared in Stralsund, having escaped from his long 
exile in Turkey and travelled day and night on horseback 
across Europe, from the shores of the Black Sea. Then Prus- 



What two wars were now goinsf on? What alliance was formed against 
Sweden, when and why? How did Denmark begin, and what followed? 
Where was Charles XII. next successful? Wliat happened in Poland? When 
was Saxony invaded? Wliither, and with what force, did Charles XII. marcli? 
What were the consequences of liis defeat at Pultowa? Wliat hapi)eued in 
Poland and the Baltic provinces? When did Charles XII. return from 
Turkey? 



1714.] THE PEAGMATIC SANCTION. 437 

sia and Hannover, both eager to enlarge their dominions at 
the expense of Sweden , united against him. He had not suf- 
ficient miUtary strength to resist them, and after his death at 
Frederickshall, in 1718, Sweden was compelled to make peace 
on conditions which forever destroyed her supremacy among 
the northern powers. 

By the Treaties of Stockholm, made in 1719 and 1720, 
Prussia acquired Stettin and all of Pomerania except a strip of 
the coast with Wismar, Stralsund and the island of Riigen, 
paying 2,000,000 thalers to Sweden: Hannover acquired the 
territories of Bremen and Verden, paying 1,000,000 thalers: 
Denmark received Schleswig , and Russia all of her conquests 
except Filmland. The power of Poland, already weakened by 
the corruptions and dissensions of her nobles, began steadily 
to decline after this long and exhausting w^ar. 

The collective history of the German States, — for we can 
hardly say "History of Germany" when there really was no 
Germany — at this time, is a continuous succession of wars and 
diplomatic intrigues, which break out in one direction before 
they are settled in another. In 1713, Frederick I. of Prussia 
died, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick William 1.: in 
1714, George I., Elector of Hannover, was made king of Eng- 
land, and about the same time the Emperor Karl VI. issued a 
decree called the "Pragmatic Sanction," establishing the order 
of succession to the throne , for his dynasty. He was led to 
this step by the example of Spain, where the failure of the 
direct line had given rise to 1 3 years of European war , and 
by the circumstance that he, himself, had neither sons nor 
brothers. A daughter, Maria Theresa, was born in 1717, and 
thus the provision of the Pragmatic Sanction that the crown 
should descend to female heirs in the absence of male, pre- 
served the succession in his own family, and forestalled the 
claim of the Elector of Bavaria and other princes who were 
more or less distantly related to the Hapsburgs. 



"WTio united against hira? When and how did the war end? What did 
Prussia acquire? Hannover? Denmark? How was Poland affected? What 
was the history of the German States, at this time? When did Frederick I. 
die, and wlio succeeded? What happened in 1714? What decree did Karl VI. 
issue? What led him to this step? When was Maria Theresa born? What 
was secured by the Pragmatic Sanction? 



138 VICTOEIES OVER THE TURKS. [l716. 

The Pragmatic Sanction was accepted in Austria without 
difficulty,"as"tliere was no power to dispute the Emperor's will, 
but it was not recognized by the other States of Germany and 
other nations of Europe until after 20 years of diplomatic ne- 
gotiations and serious sacrifices on the part of Austria. Prus- 
sia received more territory on the Lower Rhine, the Duchies 
of Parma and Piacenza in Italy were given to Spain , and the 
claims of Augustus III. of Saxony and Poland were so stre- 
nuously supported that in 1733 the so-called *'War of the 
Polish Succession" broke out. In the meantime, however, two 
other wars had occurred, and, although both of them affected 
Austria rather than the German Empire, they must be briefly 
described. 

In 1714 the Emperor Karl YI. formed an alliance with 
the Venetians against the Turks, who had taken the Morea 
from Venice. The command was given to Prince Eugene, 
who marched against his old enemy, determined to win back 
what remaining Hungarian or Slavonic territory was still held 
by Turkey. The Grand- Vizier, Ali, opposed him with a power- 
ful force, and after various minor engagements a great battle 
was fought at Peterwardein , in August, 1716. Eugene was 
completely victorious : the Turks were driven beyond the Save 
and sheltered themselves behind the strong walls of Belgrade. 
Eugene followed, and, after a siege which is famous in mili- 
tary annals, took Belgrade by storm. The victory is celebrated 
in a song which the German people are still in the habit of 
singing. The war ended with the Treaty of Passarowitz, in 
1718, by which Turkey was compelled to surrender to Aus- 
tria the Banat, Servia, including Belgrade, and a part of Wal- 
lachia, Bosnia and Croatia. 

Before this treaty was concluded, a new war had broken 
out in Italy. Philip V. of Spain, incensed at not being re- 
cognized by Karl VI., took possession of Sardinia and Sicily^ 
with the intention of conquering Naples from Austria. Eng^ 
land, France, Holland and Austria then formed the "Qua- 



How long before it was accepted? What eacrifices did Austria make? 
What did Karl VI. do in 1714? Who took command? Describe the battle 
of Peterwardein. What otlier victory followed? When was the war ended? 
On what terms? Who invaded Italy, and why? 



1710.] 



RISE OF PRUSSIA. 



439 



druple Alliance," as it was called, for the purpose of enforc- 
ing the Treaty of Utrecht, and Spain was compelled to yield. 
The power of Prussia, during these years, was steadily 
increasing. Frederick I., it is true, was among the imitators 




THK VICTORY AT PBTEBWABDBIN. 



of Louis XIV. : he built stately palaces, and spent a great deal 
of money on showy Court festivals, but he did not completely 
exhaust the resources of the country, like the Electors of 
Saxony and the rulers of many smaller States. On the other 
hand, he founded the University of Halle in 1694, and com- 
missioned the philosopher Leibnitz to draw up a plan for an 



How was tlie war suppressed? How did Frederick I. rule in Prussia? 



440 "FREDERICK WILLIAM I. [l716. 

Academy of Science, which was established in Berlin, in 1711. 
He was a zealous Protestant, and gave welcome to all who 
were exiled from other States on account of their faith. As 
a ruler, however, he was equally careless and despotic, and 
his government was often entrusted to the hands of unworthy 
agents. Frederick the Great said of him: "He was great in 
small matters, and little in great matters." 

His son , Frederick William I. , was a man of an entirely 
different nature. He disliked show and ceremony: he hated 
everything French with a heartiness which was often unreason- 
able, but which was honestly provoked by the enormous, 
monkey-like affectation of the manners of Versailles by some 
of his fellow-rulers. While Augustus of Saxony spent six mil- 
lions of thalers on a single entertainment, he set to work to 
reduce the expenses of his royal household: While the court 
of Austria supported 40,000 officials and hangers-on, and half 
of Vienna was fed from the Imperial kitchen, he was employed 
in examining the smallest details of the receipts and expen- 
ditures of his State, in order to economize and save. He was 
miserly, fierce, coarse and brutal; he aimed at being a G^r- 
man, but he went back almost to the days of Wittekind for 
his ideas of German culture and character; he was a tyrant 
of the niost savage kind, — but, after all has been said against 
him, it must be acknowledged that without his hard practical 
sense in matters of government, his rigid, despotic organiza- 
tion of industry, finance and the army, Frederick the Great 
would never have possessed the means to maintain himself in 
that struggle which made Prussia a great power. 

Some illustrations of his policy as a ruler and his personal 
habits must be given, in order to show both sides of his 
character. He had the most unbounded idea of the rights and 
duties of a king, and the aim of his life, therefore , was to in- 
crease his own authority by increasing the wealth , the order 
and the strength of Prussia. He was no friend of science, ex- 



Wliat did he do for learning? What was his religious character? What 
did Frederick the Great say of him? What sort of man was Frederick Wil- 
liam I.? How did he contrast with Augustus of Saxony? How with tho 
Court of Austria? What were his had qualities? What must be said on tho 
other side? What was the aim of his life? 



1725.] REIGN OF FEEDEIIICK WILLIAM I. 441 

cept when it could be shown to have some practical use, but 
he favored education, and one of his first measures was to 
establish 400 schools among the people, by the money which 
he saved from the expenditures of the royal household. His 
personal economy was so severe that the queen was only 
allowed to have one waiting-woman. At this time the Em- 
press of Austria had several hundred attendants, received two 
hogsheads of Tokay, daily, for her parrots, and 12 barrels of 
wine for her baths ! Frederick William I. protected the in- 
dustry of Prussia by imposing heavy duties upon all foreign 
products; he even went so far as to prohibit the people from 
wearing any but Prussian-made cloth, setting them the example 
himself. He also devoted much attention to agriculture, and 
when 17,000 Reformers were driven out of Upper Austria by 
the Archbishop of Salzburg, after the most shocking and in- 
human persecutions, he not only furnished them with land but 
supported them until they were settled in their new homes. 

The organization of the Prussian army was entrusted to 
Prince Leopold of Dessau, who distinguished himself at Turin, 
under Prince Eugene. Although during the greater part of 
Frederick William's reign peace was preserved, the military 
force was kept upon a war footing, and gradually increased 
until it amounted to 84,000 men. The king had a singular 
mania for giant soldiers : miserly as he was in other respects, 
he was ready to go to any expense to procure recruits, seven 
feet high, for his body-guard. He not only purchased such, 
but allowed his agents to kidnap them, and despotically sent 
a number of German mechanics to Peter the Great in exchange 
for an equal number of Russian giants. For 43 such tall sol- 
diers he paid 43,000 dollars, one of them, who was unusually 
large, costing 9,000. The expense of keeping these guards- 
men was proportionately great, and much of the king's time 
was spent in inspecting them. Sometimes he tried to paint 
their portraits, and if the likeness was not successful, an artist 



Ilow did he favor science and education? How was his Queen treated? 
What was allowed to the Empress of Austria? How did Frederick William I. 
protect the industry of Prussia? How did he treat the exiled Austrian 
Protestants? Who organized the Prussian army? How was the military force 
increased? What mania had the king? How were his giants procured? What 
did he pay for them? 



442 



THE GIANT GUARDS. 



[l725. 



was employed to paint the man's face until it resembled the 
king's picture! 

Frederick William^s regular evening recreation was his 
"Tobacco College," as he called it. Some of his ministers and 




THE GIANT GUARDS OP FKEDEBICK WILLIAM I. 

generals, foreign ambassadors, and even ordinary citizens, were 
invited to smoke and drink beer with him in a plain room, 
where he sat upon a three-legged stool, and they upon wooden 
benches. Each was obliged to smoke, or at least to have a 
clay pipe in his mouth and appear to smoke. The most im- 



How did he amuse himself with thorn? Describe his "Tobacco CoUcgc.*' 



1725.1 



THE TOBACCO COLLEGE. 



443 



portant affairs of State were discussed at these meetings, which 
were conducted with so little formality that no one was al- 
lowed to rise when the king entered the room. He was not 
so amiable upon his walks through the streets of Berlin or 
Potsdam. He always carried a heavy cane, which he would apply 

il|!||||ii|'!:,:i^ii!iP;'3niii;:iiiW 



i'i.';;^^H'iHiir,iM 
m 




THE "tobacco college. 



without mercy to the shoulders of any who seemed to be idle, 
no matter what their rank or station. Even his own house- 
hold was not exempt from blows; and his son Frederick was 
scarcely treated better than any of his soldiei's or workmen. 

This manner of government was rude, but it was also 
systematic and vigorous , and the people upon whom it was 



What was done at such meetings? What did tho king do in his walks? 
How did he treat his son? 



444 CONDITION OF GERMANY. * [l725. 

exercised did not deteriorate in character, as was the case in 
almost all other parts of Germany. Austria, in spite of the 
pomp of the Emperor's court, was in a state of moral and in- 
tellectual decline. Karl YI. was a man of little capacity, an in- 
strument in the hands of the Jesuits, and the minds of the 
people whom he ruled gradually became as stolid and dead as 
the latter order wished to make them. Their connection with 
Germany was scarcely felt ; they spoke of "the Empire out- 
side" almost as a foreign country, and the strength of the 
house of Hapsburg was gradually transferred to the Bohe- 
mian, Hungarian and Slavonic races which occupied the greater 
part of its territory. The industry of the country was left 
without encouragement; what little education was permitted 
was in the hands of the priests, and all real progress came to 
an end. But, for this very reason, Austria became the ideal 
of the German nobility, nine -tenths of whom were feudalists 
and sighed for the return of the Middle Ages: hundreds of 
them took service under the Emperor, either at court or in 
the army, and helped to preserve the external forms of his 
power. 

In most of the other German States, the condition of ajffairs 
was not much better. Bavaria, the Palatinate, and the three 
Archbishops of Mayence, Treves and Cologne, were abject in- 
struments in the hands of France : Hannover was governed by 
the interests of England, and Saxony by those of Poland. 
After George I. went to England, the government of Hannover 
was exercised by a council of nobles , who kept up the Court 
ceremonials just as if the Elector were present. His portrait 
was placed in a chair, and ihej observed the same etiquette 
towards it as if his real self were there! In Wiirtemberg the 
Duke, Eberhard Ludwig, so oppressed the people that many 
of them emigrated to America between the years 1717 and 
1720, and settled in Pennsylvania. This was the first German 
emigration to the New World. 



"What effect had this manner of government? What was the condition of 
Austria? How did the people change? On whom did tlie Hapsburgs now 
chiefly rely? What of industry and education? Who looked to Austria as 
an ideal? How was it, in tlie other States? What States were tools of 
France? How was Hannover governed? Saxony? What forms were ob- 
served in Hannover? What took place in Wiirtemberg? 



1733.J WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. 445 

After a peace of 19 years, counting from the Treaty of 
Rastatt, or 13 years from the Treaty of Stockholm, Germany 
— or rather the Emperor Karl VI. — became again involved in 
war. The Pragmatic Sanction was at the bottom of it. Karl's 
endless diplomacy to insure the recognition of this decree led 
him into an alliance with Russia to place Augustus III. of 
Saxony on the throne of Poland. Louis XV. of France, who 
had married the daughter of the Polish king, Stanislas Lesz- 
cinsky, took the latter's part. Prussia was induced to join 
Austria and Russia, but the cautious and economical Frederick 
William I. withdrew from the aUiance as soon as he found that 
the expense to him would be more than the advantage. The 
Polish Diet was divided: the majority, influenced by France, 
elected Stanislas, who reached Warsaw in the disguise of a 
merchant and was crowned in September, 1733. The minority 
declared for Augustus III., in whose aid a Russian army was 
even then entering Poland. 

France, in alliance with Spain and Sardinia, had already 
declared war against Germany. The plan of operations had 
evidently been prepared in advance, and was everywhere suc- 
cessfuL One French army occupied Lorraine, another crossed 
the Rhine and captured Kehl (opposite Strasburg), and a third, 
under Marshal Villars, entered Lombardy. Naples and Sicily, 
powerless to resist, fell into the hands of Spain. Prince Eugene 
of Savoy, now more than 70 years of age, was sent to the 
Rhine with such troops as Austria, taken by surprise, was able 
to furnish : the other German States either sympathized with 
France, or were indifferent to a quarrel which really did 
not concern them. Frederick Wilham of Prussia finally sent 
10,000 well-disciplined soldiers; but even with this aid Prince 
Eugene was unable to expel the French from Lorraine. In 
Poland, however, the plans of France utterly failed: in June, 
1734, king Stanislas fled in the disguise of a cattle-dealer. 
The following year, 10,000 Russians appeared on the Rhine, 



"When did war begin, again? How was it brought about? What alliance 
was made? Who took the other side? How did Prussia act? How were tlie 
Poles divided? How did France succeed? What three armies nore set in 
motion? Who was sent to the Rhine? How did the other German States act? 
What aid was finally sent? What happened in Poland? 



446 DEATH OF FREDERICK WILLIAM I. [l740. 

as allies of Austria, and Louis XV. found it prudent to ne- 
gotiate for peace. 

The Treaty of Vienna, concluded in October, 1735, put an 
end to the War of the Polish Succession. Francis of Lorraine, 
who was betrothed to Karl VI.'s daughter, Maria Theresa, 
was made Grand-Duke of Tuscany, and Lorraine (now only a 
portion of the original territory, with Nancy as capital) was 
given to the Ex-King Stanislas of Poland, with the condition 
that it should revert to France at his death. Spain received 
Naples and Sicily; Tortona and Novara were added to Sar- 
dinia, and Austria was induced to consent to all these losses 
by the recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the annexa- 
tion of the Duchies of Parma and Piacenza, in Italy. Prussia 
got nothing; and Frederick William I., who had been expect- 
ing to add Jiilich and Berg to his possessions on the Lower 
Rhine, was so exasj)erated that he entered into secret arrange- 
ments with France in order to carry out his end. The en- 
mity of Austria and Prussia was now confirmed, and it 
has been the chief power in German politics from that day 
to this. 

In 1736, Francis of Lorraine and Maria Theresa were 
married, and Prince Eugene of Savoy died, worn out with the 
hardships of his long and victorious career. The next year, 
the Empress Anna of Russia persuaded Karl VL to unite with 
her in a war against Turkey, her object being to get posses- 
sion of Azov. By this unfortunate alliance Austria lost all 
which she had gained by the Treaty of Passarowitz, 20 years 
before. There was no commander like Prince Eugene, her 
military strength had been weakened by useless and unsuc- 
cessful wars, and she w^as compelled to make peace in 1739, 
by yielding Belgrade and all her conquests in Servia and Wal- 
lachia to Turkey. 

On the 31st of May, 1740, Frederick William L died, 52 



Who next appeared, and what followed? When was the Treaty of Vienna? 
What provision was made for Francis of Lorraine and Stanislas? What losses 
did Austria suffer? Wliat did she get for them? How was Frederick Wil- 
liam I. treated, and what did he do? What enmity followed? What took 
place in 173G? What war began the next year, What wa» the result of it? 
When and how was peace made? 



1740. J DEATH OF KARL VI. 447 

years of age. He left behind him a State containing more than 
50,000 square miles, and about 2,500,000 of inhabitants. The 
revenues of Prussia, which were two and a half millions of 
thalers on his accession to the throne, had increased to seven and 
a half millions annually, and there were nine millions in the 
treasury. Berlin had a population of nearly 100,000, and Stettin, 
Magdeburg, Memel and other cities had been strongly fortified. 
An army of more than 80,000 men was perfectly organized and 
disciplined. There was the beginning of a system of instruc- 
tion for the people, feudalism was almost entirely suppressed, 
and the charge of witchcraft (which, since the fifteenth cen- 
tury, had caused the execution of several hundred thousand 
victims, throughout Germany!) was expunged from the pages 
of the law. Although the land was almost wholly Protestant, 
there w^as entire religious freedom, and the Catholic subjects 
could complain of no violation of their rights. 

On the 24th of October, 1740, Karl VI. died, leaving a 
diminished realm, a disordered military organization, and a 
people so demoralized by the combined luxury and oppression 
of the government that for more than a century afterwards 
all hope and energy and aspiration seemed to be crushed among 
them. The outward show and trappings of the Empire re- 
mained with Austria, and kept alive the political superstitions 
of that large class of Germans who looked backward instead 
of forward; but the rude, half-developed strength, which cuts 
loose from the Past and busies itself with the practical work 
of its day and generation , was rapidly creating a future for 
Prussia. 

Frederick William I. was succeeded by his son, Frede- 
rick 11. , called Frederick the Great. Karl VI. was succeeded 
by his daughter, the Empress Maria Theresa. The former 
was 28, the latter 23 years old. 



When did Frederick "William I. die? What did he leave hehind? How 
had the revenues of Prussia increased? the cities? the army? What other 
reforms were accomplished? What was the religious liberty? When did 
Karl VI. die? What did he leave behind? What remained to Austria? What 
belonged to Prussia? Who succeeded the two rulers? 



20 



448 YOUTH OF FEEDEEICK THE GEEAT. fl728. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE EEIGN OF FEEDEEICK THE GEEAT. 

(1740—1786.) 

Youth of Frederick the Great. — His Attempted Escape. — Lieutenant von Katie's 
Fate. — Frederick's Subjection.— His Marriage. — His First Measures as King. 
Maria Theresa in Austria.— Tlie First Silesian war. — Maria Theresa in 
Hungary.— Prussia Acquires Silesia. — Frederick's Alliance with France and 
the Emperor Karl VII. — The Second Silesian war.— Frederick alone against 
Austria. — Battles of Hohenfriedberg, Sorr and Kesselsdorf.— War of the 
Austrian Succession. — Peace. — Frederick as aRuler. — His Habits and Tastes. 
— Answers to Petitions. — Religious Freedom.— Development of Prussia.— 
War between England and France. — Designs against Prussia. — Beginning 
of the Seven Years' War. — Battle ai Prague.— Defeat at Kollin. — Victory of 
Rossbach. — Battle of Leuthen. — Help from England. — Campaign of 17.'S8. — 
Victory of Zorndorf.— Surprise of Hochkirch.— Campaign of 1759.— Battle 
of Kunnersdorf. — Operations in 1760. — Frederick Victorious.— Battle of 
Torgau.— Desperate Situation of Prussia. — Campaign of 17G1. — Alliance 
witli Russia. — Frederick's Successes.— The Peace of Hubertsburg.— Frede- 
rick's measures of Relief. — His Arbitrary Rule.— His Literary Tastes. — 
First Division of Poland. — Frederick's Last Years. — His Death. 

Few royal princes ever had a more unfortunate cliildliood 
and youth than Frederick the Great. His mother, Sophia 
Dorothea of Hannover, a sister of George H. of England, was 
an amiable, mild-tempered woman who was devotedly attached 
to him, but had no power to protect him from the violence of 
iiis hard and tyrannical father. Asa boy his chief tastes were 
music and French literature, which he could only indulge by 
stealth: the king not only called him "idiot!" and "puppy 1" 
when he found him occupied with a flute or a French book, 
but threatened him with personal chastisement. His whole edn- 
cation, which was gained almost in secret, was chiefly received 
at the hands of French emigres^ and his taste was formed in the 
school of ideas which at that time rulsd in France, and which 
was largely formed by Voltaire, whom Frederick during his 
boyhood greatly admired, and afterward made one of his chief 



What was the character of Frederick the Great's youth ? What were his tastes as 
ft boy ? How did his father treat him ? When and where was he led astray ? 



1780.] EXECUTION OF KATTE. 449 

correspondents and intimates. The influence of tliis is most 
clearly to be traced throughout his life. 

His music became almost a passion with him, though it is 
doubtful whether any of the praises of his proficiency that 
have come down to us are more than the remains of the flat- 
teries of the time. His compositions, which were performed 
at his concerts, to which leading musicians were often invited, 
do not give any evidence of the genius claimed for him in this 
respect ; but it is certain that he attained a considerable degree 
of mechanical skill in playing the flute. In after-life his mu- 
sical taste continued to influence him greatly, and the estab- 
lishment of the opera at Berlin was chiefly due to him. His 
father's persistent opposition rather fanned than suppressed the 
eagerness which he showed in this and other studies, as a boy ; 
and doubtless contributed to a thoroughness which afterward 
stood him in good stead. 

In 1728, w4ien only 16 years old, he accompanied his father 
on a visit to the court of Augustus the Strong, at Dresden, and 
was for a time led astray by the corrupt society into which he 
was there thrown. The wish of his mother, that he should 
marry the Princess Amelia, the daughter of George II., was 
thwarted by his father's dislike of England ; the tyranny to 
which he was subjected became intolerable, and in 1730, w^hile 
accompanying his father on a journey to Southern Germany, 
lie determined to run away. 

His accomplice was a young officer, Lieutenant von Katte, 
who had been his bosom-friend for two or three years. A let- 
ter written by Frederick to the latter fell by accident into the 
hands of another officer of the same name, who sent it to the 
king, and the plot was thus discovered. Frederick had already 
gone on board of a vessel at Frankfort, and was on the point 
of sailing down the Rhine, when his father followed, beat him 
until his face was covered with blood, and then sent him as a 
prisoner of State to Prussia. Katte was arrested before he 
could escape, tried by a court-martial and sentenced to several 
years' imprisonment. Frederick William annulled the sentence 
and ordered him to be immediately executed. To make the 
deed more barbarous, it was done before the window of the 



"What was his mother"'s vnsh^ and who thwarted it ? "What did he determine to 
do ? Who was his accomplice ? How was the plot discovered ? What happened at 
Frankfort ? "What was Katte's sentence, and how changed ? 



450 FKEDEKICK^S KESTORATIOK. [l731. 

cell in which Frederick was confined. The young Prince 
fainted, and lay so long senseless that it was feared he would 
never recover. He was then watched, allowed no implements 
except a wooden spoon, lest he might commit suicide, and only 
permitted to read a Bible and hymn-book. The officer who 
had him in charge could only converse with him by means of 
a hole bored through the ceiling of his cell. 

The king insisted that he should be formally tried ; but 
the court-martial, while deciding that "Colonel Fritz" was 
guilty, as an officer, asserted that it had no authority to con- 
demn the Crown -Prince. The king overruled the decision, 
and ordered his son to be executed. This course excited such 
horror and indignation among the officers that Frederick was 
pardoned, but not released from imprisonment until his spirit 
was broken and he had promised to obey his father in all 
things. For a year he was obliged to work as a clerk in the 
departments of the Government, beginning with the lowest 
position and rising as he acquired practical knowledge. He 
did not appear at Court until November, 1731, when his 
sister Wilhelmine was married to the Margrave of Baireuth. 
The ceremony had already commenced when Frederick, dressed 
in a plain suit of grey, without any order or decoration, was 
discovered among the servants. The king pulled him forth, 
and presented him to the Queen with these words: "Here, 
Madam, our Fritz is back again 1" 

In 1732 Frederick was forced to marry the Princess 
Elizabeth of Brunswick-Bevern, whom he disliked, and with 
whom he lived but a short time. His ft^ther gave him the 
castle of Eheinsberg, near Potsdam, and there, for the first 
time, he enjoyed some independence: his leisure was devoted 
to philosophical studies, and to correspondence with Voltaire 
and other distinguished French authors. During the war of 
the Polish Succession he served for a short time under Prince 
Eugene of Savoy, but had no opportunity to test or develop 



"Where was the deed done? "What effect had it upon Frederick? How was 
he then treated? "What did the court-martial decide? W^hat did the king 
order, and how was it prevented? What work was Frederick obliged to do? 
Describe his reappearance at Court. When was he married, and to whom? 
"Where and how did he live ? 



1740.1 HE BECOMES Kn^G. 451 

his military talent. Until his father's death he seemed to be 
more of a poet and philosopher than anything else: only the 
few who knew him intimately perceived that his mind was 
occupied with plans of government and conquest. 

When Frederick William I. died, the people rejoiced in the 
prospect of a just and peaceful rule. Frederick 11. declared to 
his ministers, on receiving their oath of allegiance, that no 
distinction should be allowed between the interests of the 
country and the king, since they were identical; but if any 
conflict of the two should arise, the interests of the country 
must have the preference. (Then he at once corrected the 
abuses of the game and recruiting laws, disbanded his father's 
body-guard of giants, abolished torture in criminal cases, re- 
formed the laws of marriage, and established a special Ministry 
for Commerce and Manufactures^) When he set out for Konigs- 
berg to receive the allegiance of Prussia proper, his whole 
Court travelled in three carriages. On arriving, he dispensed 
with the ceremony of coronation, as being unnecessary, and 
then succeeded in establishing a much closer political union 
between Prussia and Brandenburg, which, in many respects, 
had been independent of each other up to that time. 

The death of the Emperor Karl VI. was the signal for a 
general disturbance. Maria Theresa, as the events of her reign 
afterwards proved, was a woman of strong, even heroic, cha- 
racter; stately, handsome and winning in her personal appear- 
ance, and morally irreproachable. No Hapsburg Emperor 
before her inherited the crown under such discouraging circum- 
stances, and none could have maintained himself more bravely 
and firmly than she did. The ministers of Karl YL flattered 
themselves that they would now have unlimited sway over the 
empire, but they were mistaken. Maria Theresa listened to 
their counsels, but decided for herself: even her husband, 
Francis of Lorraine and Tuscany, was unable to influence her 



What military experience had he? How was he generally considered? 
"What declaration did he make, on becoming king? Wliat were his first 
measures? How did he travel to Konigsberg? How did he act there, and 
^xat aGeomplish? Wliat happened on the death of Karl VI.? V^hat kind 
of a woman was Maria Theresa? How did she compare with the Hapsburg 
Emperors? How were the ministers mistaken? 



452 FIRST SILESIA.N WAR. [l741. 

* 

judgment. The Elector, Karl Albert of Bavaria, whose grand- 
mother was a Hapsburg, claimed the crown, and was supported 
by Louis XV. of France, who saw another opportunity of 
weakening Germany. The reigning Archbishops on the Rhine 
were of course on the side of France. Poland and Saxony, 
united under Augustus III., at the same time laid claim to 
some territory along the northern frontier of Austria. 

Frederick II. saw his opportunity, and was first in the 
field. His pretext was the right of Brandenburg to four prin- 
cipalities in Silesia, which had been relinquished to Austrii 
under the pressure of circumstances. The real reason was, 
as he afterwards confessed, his determination to strengthen 
Prussia by the acquisition of more territory. The kingdom 
was divided into so many portions, separated so widely from 
each other, that it could not become powerful and permanent 
unless they were united. He had secretly raised his military- 
force to 100,000 men, and in December, 1740, he marched into 
Silesia J almost before Austria suspected his purpose. His 
army was kept under strict discipline ; the people were neither 
plundered nor restricted in their religious worship, and the 
capital, Breslau, soon opened its gates. Several fortresses 
were taken during the winter, and in April, 1741, a decisive 
battle was fought at Mollwitz. The Austrian army had the 
advantage of numbers and its victory seemed so certain that 
Marshal Schvverin persuaded Frederick to leave the field ; then, 
gathering together the remainder of his troops, he made a 
last and desperate charge which turned defeat into victory. 
All Lower Silesia was now in the hands of the Prussians. 

France, Spain, Bavaria and Saxony immediately united 
against Austria. A French army crossed the Rhine, joined 
the Bavarian forces, and marched to Linz, on the Danube, 
where Karl Albert was proclaimed Arch -Duke of Austria. 
Maria Theresa and her Court fled to Presburg, where the 
Hungarian nobles were already convened, in the hope of re- 



Wbat was her course of action? Who claimed the crown, and who sup- 
ported him? With what foes was Austria threatened? Wliat did Frederick 
do? On what pretext? What was his real reason? What force had he? 
WHien did he march? What was the cliaracter of his army? Wlien and 
where was a decisive battle fought? Describe it. Who united against Austria? 
W^hat next happened ? 



1741.] 



MARIA THEEESA IN HUNGARY. 



453 



covering the rights they had lost under Leopold I. She was 
forced to grant the most of their demands, after which she 
was crowned with the crown of St. Stephen, galloped up *'the 
king's hill," and waved her sword towards the four quarters 
of the earth, with so much grace and spirit that the Hungarians 
were quite won to her side. Afterwards, when she appeared 
before the Diet in their national costume, with her son Joseph 




MARIA THEEESA BEFOBE THE HTJNQARIAW DIET. 

m her arms, and made an eloquent speech, setting forth the 
dangers which beset her, the nobles drew their sabres and 
shouted: *'We will die for our King^ Maria Theresal" 

While the support of Hungary and Austria was thus se- 
cured, the combined German and French force did not advance 
U23on Vienna, but marched to Prague, where Karl Albert 



What did Maria Theresa do? Whose demands did she grant? 
lowed ? What scene took place in the Diet? 



What fol- 



454 END OF THE FIKST SILESIAN WAE. [l742. 

was crowned Kjji^ of Bohemia. This act was followed, in 
February, 1742, by liis coronation in Frankfort as Emperor, 
under the name of Karl VII. Before this took phice, Austria 
had been forced to make a secret treaty with Frederick II. 
The latter, however, declared that the conditions of it had 
been violated, and in the spring of 1742 he marched into Bo- 
hemia. He was victorious in the first great battle: England 
then intervened, and persuaded Maria Theresa to make peace 
by yielding to Prussia both Upper and Lower Silesia and the 
principality of Glatz. Thus ended the First Silesian War, 
which gave Prussia an addition of 1,200,000 to her 23opulation, 
with 150 large and small cities, and about 5,000 villages. 

The most dangerous enemy of Austria being thus tempo- 
rarily removed, the fortunes of Maria Theresa speedily changed, 
especially since England, Holland and Hannover entered 
into an alliance to support her against France. George II. of 
England took the field in person, and was victorious over the 
French in the battle of Dettingen_(iiot far from Frankfort), 
in June, 1743. After this Saxony joined the Austrian alliance, 
and the Landgrave of Hesse, who cared nothing for the war, 
but was willing to make money, sold an equal number of 
soldiers to France and to England. Frederick II. saw that 
France would not be able to stand long against such a coali- 
tion, and he knew that the success of Austria would probably 
be followed by an attempt to regain Silesia; therefore, 
regardless of appearances, he entered into a compact with 
France and the Emperor Karl VII., and prepared for an- 
other war. 

Ill the summer of 1744 he marched into Bohemia with an 
army of 80,000 men, toolc Prague on the 16th of September, 
and conquered the greater part of the country. But the Bo- 
hemians were hostile to him, the Hungarians rose again in 
defence of Austria, and an army under Charles of Lorraine, 
which was operating against the French in Alsatia, was re- 



Where did the Germans and French march? "When was Karl Albert 
crowned Emperor? What took place between Austria and Frederick II.? What 
followed? How was peace made? What did Prussia gain? How did the 
fortunes of Maria Theresa cliange? Where was George II. of England vic- 
torious? What was done by Saxony and Hesse? What course did Frede- 
rick II. take? What did he do in the summer of 1744? 



1745,] THE SECOND SILESIAN WAR. 455 

called to resist his advance. He was forced to retreat in the 
dead of winter, leaving many cannon behind him, and losing 
a large number of soldiers on the way. On the 20th of Ja- 
nuary, 1745, Karl VII. died, and his son, Max. Joseph, gave 
up his pretensions to the Imperial crown, on condition of 
having Bavaria (which Austria had meanwhile conquered) 
restored to him. France thereupon practically withdrew from 
the struggle, leaving Prussia in the lurch. Frederick stood 
alone, with Austria, Saxony and Poland united against him, 
and a prospect of England and Russia being added to the 
number: the tables had turned, and he was very much in the 
condition of Maria Theresa, four years before. 

In May, 1745, Silesia was invaded with an army of 
100,000 Austrians and Saxons. Frederick marched against 
them with a much smaller force,\ inet them at Hohenfriedberg, 
and gave battle on the 4tli of June. He began with a furious 
charge of Prussian cavalry at dawn, and by 9 o'clock the 
enemy was utterly routed, leaving 66 standards, 5,000 dead 
and wounded, and 7,000 prisoners. This victory produced a 
great effect throughout Europe. England intervened in favor 
of peace, and Frederick declared that he would only fight 
until the possession of Silesia was firmly guaranteed to him; 
but 'Maria Theresa (who hated Frederick intensely, as she had 
good reason to do) answered that she would sooner part with 
the clothes on her body than give up Silesia. 

Frederick entered Bohemia with 18,000 men, and on the 
30th of SejDtember was attacked, at a village called .Sorr, by 
a force of 40,000. Nevertheless lie managed his cavalry so 
admirably, that he gained the victory. Then, learning that 
the Saxons were preparing to invade Prussia in his rear, he 
garrisoned all the passes leading from Bohemia into Silesia, 
and marched into Saxony with his main force. The *'01d 
Dessauer," as Prince Leopold was called, took Leipzig, and, 
pressing forwards, won another great victory on the 15th of 



What forces were opposed to him? What was he forced to do? When did 
Karl VII. die, and what followed? How did Frederick now stand? Who in- 
vaded Silesia, and when? What battle took pLice? Describe it. Who inter- 
vened? What declarations were made, on both sides? What was Frederick's 
first victory in Bohemia? What did he next do? 



456 THE PEACE OF DKESDEN. [l745. 

December, at Kesselsdorf. Frederick, who arrived on the field 
at the close of the fight, embraced the old veteran in the sight 
of the army. The next day, the Prussians took possession of 
Dresden: the capital was not damaged, but, like the other 
cities of Saxony, was made to pay a heavy contribution. Peace 
was concluded with Austria ten days afterwards: Prussia was 
confirmed in the possession of all Silesia and Glatz, and Fred- 
erick agreed to recognize Francis of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's 
husband, w4io had already been crowned Emperor at Frankfort, 
as Francis I. Thus ended the Second Silesian War. Frederick 
was first called ^'the Great," on his return to Berlin^ where 
he was received with boundless popular rejoicings. 

The ''War of the Austrian Succession," as it was called, 
lasted three years longer, but its character was changed. Its 
field was shifted to Italy and Flanders: in the latter country 
Maurice of Saxony (better known as Marshal de Saxe), one 
of the many sons of Augustus the Strong, was signally suc- 
cessful. He conquered the greater part of the Netherlands for 
France, in the year 1747. Then Austria, although she had 
regained much of her lost ground in Northern Italy, formed 
an alliance with the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who fur- 
nished an army of 40,000 men. The money of France was 
exhausted, and Louis XV. found it best to make peace, which 
was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle in October, 1748. He gave 
up all the conquests which France had made during the war, 
Austria yielded Parma and Piacenza to Sjjain, a portion of 
Lombardy to Sardinia, and again confirmed Frederick the Great 
in the possession of Silesia. 

After the Peace of Dresden, in 1745, Prussia enjoyed a 
rest of nearly 1 1 years. Frederick's first care was to heal the 
wounds which his two Silesian wars had made in the popu- 
lation and the industry of his people. He called himself ''the 
first official servant of the State," and no civil officer under 
him labored half so earnestly and zealously. He looked upon 



Who won the victory at Kesselsdorf? What was done the next day? 
When •'vas peace made, and on wliat conditions? What was Frederick then 
called? How long did the Austrian War last? What happened in Flanders, 
and when? What now alliance did Austria form? When was peace made? 
What did Louis XV. give up? What did Austria yield? How long did 
Prussia enjoy peace? What wus Frederick's first care? 



1747.J FEEDEKICK AS RULER. 457 

his kingdom as a large estate , the details of which must be 
left to ageuts, while the general supervision devolved upon 
him alone. Therefore he insisted that all questions which 
required settlement, all changes necessary to be made, even 
the least infractions of the laws, should be referred directly 
to himself, so that his secretaries had much more to do than 
his ministers. While he claimed the absolute right to govern, 
he acce2:)ted all the responsibility which it brought upon him. 
He made himself acquainted with every village and landed 
estate in his kingdom, watched, as far as possible, over every 
official, and personally studied the operation of every reform. 
He rose at 4 or 5 o'clock, labored at his desk for hours, read- 
ing the multitude of reports and letters of complaint or ap- 
peal, which came simply addressed "to the King," and barely 
allowed himself an hour or two towards evening for a walk 
with his greyhounds, or a little practise on his beloved flute. 
His evenings were usually spent in conversation with men of 
culture and intelligence. His literary tastes, however, remained 
French all his life: his many works were written in that 
language, he preferred to speak it, and he sneered at German 
literature at a time when authors like Lessing, Klopstock, 
Herder and Goethe were gradually lifting it to such a height 
of glory as few other languages have ever attained. 

His rough, practical common-sense as a ruler is very well 
illustrated by his remarks upon the documents sent for his 
inspection, many of which are still preserved. On the back of 
the "Petition from the merchant Simon of Stettin, to be al- 
lowed to purchase an estate for 40,000 thalers," he wrote: 
**40,000 thalers invested in commerce will yield 8 per cent., 
in landed property only 4 per cent. ; so this man does not 
understand his own business." On the "Petition from the city 
of Frankfort-on-Oder, against the quartering of troops upon 
them," he wrote: "Why, it cannot be otherwise. Do they 
think I can put the regiment into my pocket? But the bar- 
racks shall be rebuilt." And finally, on the "Petition of the 



"What did he call himself ? How did he consider his kingdom? Upon what 
did Le insist? What did he undertake to do? What were his habits of work? 
What were his tastes? His estimate of German literature? How is his com- 
mon-sense iUustrated? 



458 RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. [l748. 

Chamberlain, Baron Miiller, for leave to visit the baths of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, he wrote: "What would he do there? He would 
gamble away the little money he has left, and come back like 
a beggar." The expenses of Frederick's own Court were re- 
stricted to about j? 100,000 a year, at a time when nearly 
every petty prince in Germany was spending from five to ten 
times that sum. 

In the administration o^ justice and the estabhshment of 
entire religious liberty, Prussia rapidly became a model which 
put to shame and disturbed the most of the other German 
States. Frederick openly declared : "I mean that every man 
in my kingdom shall have the right to be saved in his own 
way:" in Silesia, where the Protestants had been persecuted 
under Austria, the Catholics were now free and contented. 
This course gave him a great popularity outside of Prussia, 
among the common people, and for the first time in 200 
years, the hope of better times began to revive among them. 
Frederick was as absolute a despot as any of his fellow-rulers 
of the day; but his was a despotism of intelligence, justice 
and conscience, opposed to that of ignorance, bigotry and 
selfishness. 

Frederick's rule, however, was not without its serious 
faults. He favored the education of his people less than his 
father, and was almost equally indifierent to the encourage- 
ment of science. The Berlin Academy was neglected, and 
another in which the French language was used , and French 
theories discussed, took its place. Prussian students were for 
a while prohibited from visiting Universities outside of the 
kingdom. On the other hand, agriculture was favored in 
every possible way: great tracts of marshy land, which had 
been uninhabited, were transformed into fertile and popu- 
lous regions; canals, roads and bridges were built, and new 
markets for produce established. The cultivation of the potato, 
up to that time unknown in Germany as an article of food, 
was forced upon the unwilling farmers. In return for all these 



Give some instances. "What economy did he practise ? How did Prussia 
improve? What declaration of religious freedom did Frederick make? What 
effect had this course throughout Germany? What were Frederick's faults? 
What Academy was formed? How were students treated? What material 
improvements were made? What new culture was introduced? 



1755.J 



WAR BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 



459 



advantages, the people were heavily taxed, but not to such 
an extent as to impoverish them, as in Saxony and Austria. 
The army was not only kept up , but hu'gely increased , for 
Frederick knew that the peace which Prussia enjoyed could 
not last long. 

Tlie clouds of war slowly gathered on the political horizon. 
The peace of Europe was broken by the quarrel between 







PRUSSIAN INFANTRY FIGHT AUSTRIAN CAVALRY, 

England and France, in 1755j in regard to the boundaries 
between Canada and the English Colonies. This involved 
danger to Hannover, which was not yet disconnected from 
England, and the latter power proposed to Maria Theresa an 
alliance against France. The minister of the Empress was at 
this time Count Kaunitz, who fully shared her hatred of Fred- 
erick IL, and determined, with her, to use this opportunity 



How were the people taxed? When and how was the pence of Europe 
broken? What Gorman State was involved? 



4G0 ALLIANCE AGAINST PRUSSIA. [l756. 

to recover Silesia. She therefore refused England's proposition, 
and wrote a flattering letter to Madame de Pompadour^ the 
favorite of Louis XV., to prepare the way for an alliance be- 
tween Austria and France. At the same time secret negotia- 
tions \vere carried on with Elizabeth of Russia, who was mor- 
tally offended with T^ederick II., on account of some dis- 
paraging remarks lie had made about her. Louis XV., never- 
theless, hesitated until Maria Theresa promised to give him 
the Austrian (the former Spanish) Netherlands, in return for 
his assistance : then the compact between the three great mili- 
tary powers of the Continent was concluded, and everything 
was quietly arranged for commencing the war against Prussia 
in the spring of 1757. So sure were they of success that they 
agreed beforehand on the manner in which the Prussian king- 
dom should be cut up and divided among themselves and the 
other States. 

Through his paid agents at the different courts, and 
especially through the Crown Prince Peter of Russia, who was 
one of his most enthusiastic admirers, Frederick was well- 
informed of these plans. He saw that the coalition was too 
powerful to be defeated by diplomacy: his ruin was determined 
upon, and he could only prevent it by accepting war against 
such overwhelming odds. England was the only great power 
which could assist him, and Austria's policy left her no alter- 
native: she concluded an alliance with Prussia in January, 
1756, but her assistance, afterwards, was furnished in the 
shape of money rather than troops. The small States of 
Brunswick, Hesse -Cassel and Saxe-Gotha were persuaded to 
join Prussia, but they added very little to Frederick's strength, 
because Bavaria and all tlie principalities along the Rhine were 
certain to go with France, in a general German war. 

Knowing when the combined movement against him was 
to be made, Frederick boldly determined to anticipate it. 
Disregarding the neutrality of Saxony, he crossed its frontier 



Who -was Maria Theresa's minister? What did ho determine? What was 
her course towards France? With whom else were negotiations carried on? 
WliMt did Austria promise? What was the plan? What was agreed before- 
hand? How was Frederick informed of these plans? WJiat was the only 
course left him? What power was friendly to him? What small States joined 
Prussia? Which were friendly to France? 



1756.] WAB IN BOHEMIA. 461 

on the 29tli of August, 1756, with an army of 70,000 men. 
Ten days afterwards he entered Dresden, besieged the Saxon 
army of 17,000 in their fortified camp on the Elbe, and 
pushed a column forwards into Bohemia. Maria Theresa 
collected her forces, and sent an army of nearly 70,000 in all 
haste against him. Frederick met them with 20,000 men at 
Lobositz, on the 1st of October, and after hard fighting gained 
a victory by the u?e of the bayonet. lie wrote to Marshal 
Schwerin : *'Never have my Prussians performed such miracles 
of bravery, since I had the honor to command them." The 
Saxons surrendered soon afterwards, and Frederick went into 
winter-quarters, secure against any further attack before the 
spring. 

This was a severe check to the plans of the allied powers, 
and they made every effort to retrieve it. Sweden was induced 
to join them, and "the German Empire," through its almost 
forgotten Diet, declared war against Prussia. All together 
raised an armed force of 430,000 men, while Frederick, with 
the greatest exertion, could barely raise 200,000: England 
sent him an utterly useless general, the Duke of Cumberland, 
but no soldiers. He dispatched a part of his army to meet 
the Russians and Swedes, marched with the rest into Bohemia, 
and on the 6th of May won a decided but very bloody victory 
before the walls of Prague. The old hero, Schwerin, charging 
at the head of his troops, was slain, and the entire loss of the 
Prussians was 18,000 killed and wounded. But there was 
still a large Austrian army in Prague: the city was besieged 
with the utmost vigor for five weeks, and was on the very 
point of surrendering when Frederick heard that another 
Austrian army, commanded by Daun, was marching to its 
rescue. 

He thereupon raised the siege, hastened onwards and met 
Daun at KoUin, on the Elbe, on the 18th of June. He had 
31,000 men and the Austrians 54,000: he prepared an ex- 

"When, and with what force, did Frederick commence the war? "What suc- 
cess had he? How did Maria Theresa meet him? What battle foUowed? 
What was gained by this victory? What exertions were made by the allies? 
What force did they raise? What was Frederiok's ? What did England send? 
Wliere was the first victory? What was the Prussian loss? What folio wod 
the battle? What did Frederick do, after raising the siege? What were tha 
forces on both sides? 



462 THE DEFEAT AT KOLLIN. [l757. 

cellent plan of battle, then deviated from it, and commenced 
the attack against the advice of General Zieten, his chief com- 
mander. His haste and stubbornness were well nigh proving 
his ruin; he tried to retrieve the fortunes of the day by per- 
sonally leading his soldiers against the Austrian batteries, but 
in vain, — they were repulsed, with a loss of 14,000 dead and 
wounded. That evening Fi-ederick was found alone, seated 
on a log, drawing figures in the sand with his cane. He shed 
tears on hearing of the slaughter of all his best guardsmen ; 
then, after a long silence, said: "It is a day of sorrow for us, 
my children, but have patience, for all will yet be well." 

The defeat at Kollin threw Frederick's plans into confu- 
sion: it was now necessary to give up Bohemia, and simply 
act on the defensive, on Prussian soil. Here he was met by 
the news of fresh disasters. His other army had been defeated 
by a much superior Russian force, and the useless Duke of 
Cumberland had surrendered Hannover to the French. But 
the Russians had retreated, after their victory, instead of ad- 
vancing, and Frederick's general, Lehwald, then easily repulsed 
the Swedes, who had invaded Pomerania. By this time a com- 
bined French and German army of 60,000 men, under Marshal 
Soubise, was approaching from the west, confident of an easy 
victory and comfortable winter-quarters in Berlin. Frederick 
united his scattered and diminished forces: they only amounted 
to 22,000, and great was the amusement of the French when 
they learned that he meant to dispute their advance. 

After some preliminary manoeuvering the two armies ap- 
proached each other, on the 5th of November, at R ossba ch, 
not far from Naumburg. When Marshal Soubise saw the 
Prussian camp, he said to his officers: "It is only a break- 
fast for us !" and ordered his forces to be spread out so as to 
cut off the retreat of the enemy. Frederick was at dinner 
when he received the news of the approaching attack: he im- 
mediately ordered General Seidlitz to charge with his cavalry, 



Describe the battle. How was Frederick found, and what did he say? 
What foUowed the defeat? What other disasters occurred? What advantages 
were gained? What French army was advancing? How did Frederick pre- 
pare to meet it? When and where did they meet? What did Marshal Soubise 
say and do? 



1757.J 



THE VICTORY AT ROSSBACH. 



463 



broke up his camp and marshalled his infantry in the rear of 
a range of low hills which concealed his movements. The 
French, supposing that he was retreating, pressed forwards 
with music and shouts of triumph; then, suddenly, Seidlitz 
burst upon them with his 8,000 cavalry, and immediately 
afterwards Frederick's cannon began to play upon their ranks 
from a commanding position. They were thrown into con- 




THE BATTLE OF BOSSBACH. 



fusion by this surprise: Frederick and his brother. Prince 
Henry, led the infantry against them, and in an hour and a 
half from the commencement of the battle they w^ere flying 
from the field in the wildest panic, leaving everything behind 
them. Nine generals, 320 other officers and 7,000 men were 
made prisoners, and all the artillery, arms and stores cap- 
tured. The Prussian loss was only 91 dead and 274 wounded. 
The remnant of the French army never halted until it 
reached the Rhine. All danger ft'om the west was now at an 
end, and Frederick hastened towards Silesia which had in the 



Give a description of the battle. What was the French loss? the PrussianT 



464 THE BATTLE OF LEUTHEN [l757. 

mean time been occupied by a powerful Austrian army under 
Charles of Lorraine. By making forced marches, in three 
weeks Frederick effected a junction near Breslau with his re- 
treating Prussians , and found himself at the head of an army 
of about 32,000 men. Charles of Lorraine and Marshal Daun 
had united their forces, taken Breslau, and opposed him with 
a body of more than 80,000; but, instead of awaiting his at- 
tack, they moved forward to meet him. Near tlie Jittle town 
of Leuthen, the two came together. Frederic summoned his 
generals, and addressed them in a stirring speech: ^'Against 
all the rules of military science,'' he said; "I am going to en- 
gage an army nearly three times greater than my own. AVe 
must beat the enemy, or all together make for ourselves graves 
before his batteries. This I mean, and thus will I act: re- 
member that you are Prussians. If one among you fears to 
share the last danger with me, he may resign now, without 
hearing a word of reproof from me." 

Tlie king's heroic courage was shared by his officers and 
soldiers. At dawn, on the 5th of December, the troops sang 
a solemn hymn, after which sliouts of ''It is again the 5th 1" 
and "Kossbach!" rang through the army. Frederick called 
General Zieten to him, and said: ''I am going to expose my- 
self more than ordinarily, to-day. Should I fall , cover my 
body with your cloak, and say nothing to any one. The fight 
must go on and the enemy must be beaten." He concealed 
the movement of his infantry behind some low hills, as at 
Rossbach, and surprised the left flank of the Austrian army, 
wdiile his cavalry engaged its right flank. Both attacks were 
so desperate that the Austrians struggled in vain to recover 
their ground : after several hours of hard fighting they gave 
way, then broke up and fled in disorder, losing more than 
20,000 in killed, wounded and prisoners. The Prussian loss 
was about 5,000. The cold winter night came down on the 
battle-field, still covered with wounded and dying and resound- 
ing with cries of suffering. All at once a Prussian grenadier 



Where did Frederick next turn? What did he accomplish in throe weeks ? 
Who were opposed to him? "What did they do? What address did Frede- 
rick make? What was the spirit of the army? What did Frederick say to 
Zieten? Describe the battle. What were the losses on both sides* 



1758.] THE CAMPAIGN OF 1758. 465 

began to sing the hymn : "Now let all hearts thank God ;" 
the regiment nearest him presently joined, then the military 
bands, and soon the entire army united in the grand choral of 
thanksgiving. Thus gloriously for Prussia closed the second 
year of this remarkable war. 

Frederick immediately took Breslau , with its garrison of 
17,000 Austrians, and all of Silesia except the fortress of 
Schweidnitz. During the winter Maria Theresa made vigorous 
preparations for a renewal of the war, and urged Russia and 
France to make fresh exertions. The reputation which Fred- 
erick had gained , however, brought him also some assistance : 
after the victories of Rossbach and Leuthen, there was so 
much popular enthusiasm for him in England that the Govern- 
ment granted him a subsidy of 4,000,000 thalers annually, 
and allowed him to appoint a commander for the troops of 
Hannover and the other allied States. Frederick selected 
Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, who operated with so much 
skill and energy that by the summer of 1758 he had driven 
the French from all Northern Germany. 

Frederick, as usual, resumed his work before the Austrians 
were ready, took Schweidnitz, re-established his rule over Si- 
lesia, penetrated into Moravia and laid siege to Olmiitz. But 
the Austrian Marshal Laudon cut off his communications with 
Silesia and forced him to retreat across the frontier, where he 
established himself in a fortified camp near Landshut. The 
Russians by this time had conquered the whole of the Duchy 
of Prussia, invaded Pomerania, which they plundered and laid 
waste, and were approaching the river Oder. On receiving 
this news, Frederick left Marshal Keith in command of his 
camp, took what troops could be spared and marched against 
his third enemy, whom he met on the 25th of August, 1758, 
near the village of Zorndorf, in Pomerania. The battle lasted 
from 9 ill the morning until 10 at night: Frederick had 
32,000 men, mostly new recruits, the Russian General Fermor 



What happened on the battle-field? What successes followed? How did 
Mhfia Theresa act? Wliat new aid came to Frederick? Whom did he ap- 
point? How did he begin the next campaign? How was he forced to retreat? 
What had tho Eussians done, by this time? When and where did Frederick 
meet them? 



466 



THE BATTLE OF ZORNDORF. 



[l758. 



60,000. The Prussian lines were repeatedly broken, but as 
often restored by the bravery of General Seidlitz , who finally 




^■^^ci^::^^^^);^ 



GENERAL VON SEIDIilTZ. 



won the battle by daring to disobey Frederick's orders. The 
latter sent word to him that he must answer for his disobe- 
dience \vith his head, but Seidlitz replied: "Tell the king ho 



How many fought, and how long? Who won tho battle, and how? 



1758.] THE SURPKISE OF HOCHKIRCH. 467 

may have my head when the battle is over, but until then I 
must use it in his service." When, late at night, the Russians 
were utterly defeated, leaving 20,000 dead upon the field — 
for the Prussians gave them no quarter — Frederick embraced 
Seidhtz, crying out: "I owe the victory to you!" 

The three great powers had been successively repelled, but 
the strength of Austria was not yet broken. Marshal Daun 
marched into Saxony and besieged the fortified camp of Prince 
Henry, thus obliging Frederick to hasten to his rescue. The 
latter's confidence in himself had been so exalted by his vic- 
tories, that he and his entire army would have been lost but 
for the prudent watchfulness of Z ietem, All except the latter 
and his hussars were quietly sleeping at Hochkirch, on the 
night of the 13th of October, when the camp was suddenly at- 
tacked by Daun, in overwhelming force. The village was set 
on fire, the Prussian batteries captured, and a terrible fight 
ensued. Prince Francis of Brunswick and Marshal Keith were 
killed and Prince Maurice of Dessau severely wounded: the 
Prussians defended themselves heroically, but at 9 o'clock on 
the morning of the 14th they were compelled to retreat, leav- 
ing all their artillery and camp equipage behind them. This 
was the last event of the campaign of 1758, and it was a bad 
omen for the following year. 

Frederick tried to negotiate for peace, but in vain. The 
strength of his army was gone ; his victories had been dearly 
bought with the loss of all his best regiments. Austria and 
Russia reinforced their armies and planned, this time, to unite 
in Silesia, while the French, who defeated the Duke of Bruns- 
wick in April, 1759, regained possession of Hannover. Fred- 
erick was obliged to divide his troops and send an army 
under General Wedell against the Russians, while he, with a 
very reduced force, attempted to check the Austrians in Sile- 
sia. Wedell was defeated, and the junction of his two enemies 
could no longer be prevented; they marched against him, 
70,000 strong, and took up a position at Kunnersdorf, op- 



What messages were exchanged? What was the end of the battle? What 
happened in Saxony? When and where was Frederick surprised? Who saved 
hira? Give an account of the disaster? W^hat was Frederick's situation? 
What were the plans of his enemies? How was he forced to act? 



/ 



468 THE DEFEAT AT KUNNERSDORP. [l759. 

posite Frankfort-on-Oder. Frederick had but 4 8,000 men, after 
calling together almost the entire military strength of his 
kingdom, and many of these were raw recruits who had never 
smelt powder. 

On the 12th of August, 1759, after the good news arrived 
that Ferdinand of Brunswick had defeated the French at Min- 
den, Frederick gave battle. At the end of six hours the Rus- 
sian left wing gave way; then Frederick, against the advice of 
Seidlitz, ordered a charge upon the right wing, which occupied 
a very strong position and was supported by the Austrian army. 
Seidlitz twice refused to make the charge ; and then when he 
yielded, was struck down, severely wounded, after his cavalry 
had been cut to pieces. Frederick himself led the troops to 
fresh slaughter, but all in vain : they fell in whole batallions 
before the terrible artillery fire, until 20,000 lay upon the 
field. The enemy charged in turn, and the Prussian army was 
scattered in all directions, only about 3,000 accompanying the 
king in his retreat. For some days after this, Frederick was 
in a state of complete despair, listless, helpless, unable to decide 
or command in anything. 

Prussia was only saved by a difference of opinion between 
Marshal Daun and the Russian general, Soltikoff. The latter 
refused to advance on Berlin, but fell back upon Silesia to 
rest his troops: Daun marched into Saxony, took Dresden, 
which the Prussians had held up to that time, an.d made 
12,000 prisoners. Thus ended this unfortunate year. Prus- 
sia was in such an exhausted condition that it seemed impos- 
sible to raise more men or more money, to carry on the war. 
Frederick tried every means to break the alliance of his 
enemies, or to acquire new allies for himself, even appealing 
to Spain and Turkey, but without effect. In the spring of 
1760, the armies of Austria, "the German Empire," Russia 
and Sweden amounted to 280,000, to meet which he was 
barely able , by making every sacrifice , to raise 90,000. In 



What force united against him, and where? What was his own army? 
When, and under what circumstances, did he give battle? What mistake did 
Frederick make? How did the battle end? In what condition was Frederick 
left? What saved Pr-ussia from ruin? What success had the Austrians in 
Saxony? What was now the condition of Prussia? What did Frederick try 
to do? What were the two armies, in 1760? 



1760.] CAPTUKE OP BERLIN. 469 

Hannover Ferdinand of Brunswick had 75,000, opposed by a 
French army of 115,000. 

Silesia was still the bone of contention , and it was plan- 
ned that the Austrian and Russian armies should unite there, 
as before, while Frederick was equally determined to prevent 
their junction , and to hold the province for himself But he 
first sent Prince Henry and General Fouque to Silesia, while 
he undertook to regain possession of Saxony. He bombarded 
Dreden furiously, without success, and was then called away 
by the news that Fouque with 7,000 men had been defeated 
and taken prisoners near Landshut. All Silesia was overrun 
by the Austrians, except Breslau, which was heroically defended 
by a small force. Marshal Laudon was in command, and as 
the Russians had not yet arrived, he effected a junction with 
Daun, who had followed Frederick from Saxony. On the 15th 
of August, 1760, they attacked him with a combined force of 
95,000 men. Although he had but 35,000, he won such a 
splendid victory that the Russian army turned back on hear- 
ing of it, and in a short time Silesia, except the fortress of 
Glatz, was restored to Prussia. 

Nevertheless, while Frederick was engaged in following up 
his victory, the Austrians and Russians came to an understand- 
ing, and moved suddenly upon Berlin, — the Russians from the 
Oder, the Austrians and Saxons combined from Lusatia. The 
city defended itself for a few days, but surrendered on the 
9th of October: a contribution of 1,700,000 thalers was levied 
by the conquerors, the Saxons ravaged the royal palace at 
Charlottenburg, but the Russians and Austrians committed 
few depredations. Four days afterwards, the news that Fred- 
erick was hastening to the relief of Berlin compelled the 
enemy to leave. Without attempting to pursue them, Frede- 
rick turned and marched back to Silesia, where, on the 3d of 
November, he met the Austrians, under Daun, at Torgau. This 
was one of the bloodiest battles of the Seven Years' War: the 



How did they stand, in Hannover? What were the plans for Silesia ? "What 
did Frederick first do? What loss called him away? What was the condi- 
tion of Silesia? By whom, when, and with what force, was Frederick at- 
tacked? What were the consequences? What did the Austrians and Kussians 
do? What happened in Berlin and Cliarlottenburg ? What compelled the 
enemy to leave? Where did Frederick next meet the Austrians? 



470 DESPERATE CONDITION OF PEUSSIA, [l760. 

Prussian army was divided between Frederick and Zieten, the 
former undertaking to storm the Austrian position in front 
while the latter attacked their flank. But Frederick, either 
too impetuous or mistaken in the signals, moved too soon: a 
terrible day's fight followed, and when night came 10,000 of 
his soldiers, dead or wounded , lay upon the field. He sat all 
night in the village church, making plans for the morrow ; 
then, in the early dawn, Zieten came and announced that he 
had been victorious on the Austrian flank, and they were in 
full retreat. After which, turning to his soldiers, Zieten cried : 
"Boys, hurrah for our king! — he has won the battle!" The 
men answered: "Hurrah for Fritz, our king, and hurrah for 
Father Zieten, too!" The Prussian loss was 13,000, the Aus- 
trian 20,000. 

Although Prussia had been defended with such astonish- 
ing vigor and courage during the year 1760, the end of the 
campaign found her greatly weakened. The Austrians held 
Dresden and Glatz, two important strategic points, Russia and 
France were far from being exhausted, and every attempt of 
Frederick to strengthen himself by alliance — even with Turkey 
and with Cossack and Tartar chieftains — came to nothing. In 
October, 1760, George I. of England died, there was a change 
of ministry, and the four milhons of thalers which Prussia had 
received for three years were cut off. The French, under 
Marshals Broglie and Soubise, had been bravely met by Prince 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, but he was not strong enough to 
prevent them from quartering themselves for the winter in 
Cassel and Gottingen. Under these discouraging aspects the 
year 1761 opened. 

The first events were fortunate. Prince Ferdinana moved 
against the French in February and drove them back nearly 
to the Rhine; the army of "the German Empire" was expelled 
from Thiiringia by a small detachment of Prussians, and Prince 
Henry, Frederick's brother, maintained himself in Saxony 
against the much stronger Austrian army of Marshal Daun. 



What was his share in the battle? What had Zieten done? How was it 
announced? What wore the losses? Describe the situation, at the end of 
1760. What loss came from England ? What successes had the French achieved ? 
What were the first events of 1761? 



1761.] 



NEW PRUSSIAN SUCCESSES. 



471 










G ENSEAL VON ZUJTBN. 



These successes left Frederick free to act with all his remain- 
ing forces against the Austrians in Silesia, under Laudon, and 

21 



472 THE DARKEST PERIOD. [l761. 

their Russian allies who were marching through Poland to 
unite with them a third time. But their combined force was 
140,000 men, his barely 55,000. By the most skilful military 
tactics, marching rapidly back and forth, threatening first one 
and then the other, he kept them asunder until the middle of 
August , when they effected a junction in spite of him. Then 
he entrenched himself so strongly in a fortified camp near 
Schweidnitz, that they did not dare to attack him immediately. 
Marshal Laudon and the Russian commander, Buturlin, quar- 
reled, in consequence of which a large part of the Russian 
army left, and marched northwards into Pomerania. Then 
Frederick would have given battle, but on the 1st of October, 
Laudon took Schweidnitz by storm and so strengtliened 
his position thereby that it would have been useless to at- 
tack him. 

Frederick's prospects were darker than ever when the year 
1761 came to a close. On the 16th of December, the Swedes 
and Russians took the important fortress of Colberg, on tho 
Baltic coast: half Pomerania was in their hands, more than 
half of Silesia in the hands of the Austrians, Prince Henry was 
hard pressed in Saxony, and Ferdinand of Brunswick was 
barely able to hold back the French. On all sides the allied 
enemies were closing in upon Prussia, whose people could no 
longer furnish soldiers or pay taxes. For more than a year 
the country had been hanging on the verge of ruin, and while 
Frederick's true greatness had been illustrated in his unyield- 
ing courage, his unshaken energy, his determination never to 
give up, he was almost powerless to plan any further measures 
of defence. With four millions of people, he had for six 
years fought powers which embraced eighty millions; but now 
half his territory was lost to him and the other half utterly 
exhausted. 

Suddenly, in the darkest hour, light came. In January, 
1762, Frederick's bitter enemy, the Empress Elizabeth of 



Against whom was Frederick left to act? What were the forces on both 
Bides? How, and until when, did he keep the two asunder? What did ho 
then do? Wliat next followed? Wliat i)revented Frederick from giving 
battle? Describe the situation, at the end of 1761. What was Prussia's con- 
dition? How was Frederick situated? What had he done, for six years? 



1762.] PRUSSIA AGAIN SUCCESSFUL. 473 

Russia, died, and was succeeded by Czar Peter III. , who was 
one of his most devoted admirers. The first thing Peter did 
was to send back all the Prussian prisoners of war; an armis- 
tice was concluded, then a peace, and finally an alliance, by 
which the Russian troops in Pomerania and Silesia were trans- 
ferred from the Austrian to the Prussian side. Sweden fol- 
lowed the example of Russia, and made peace, and the 
campaign of 1762 opened with renewed hopes for Prussia. In 
July, 1762, Peter III. was dethroned and murdered, where- 
upon his widow and successor, Catharine II. broke off the al- 
liance with Frederick ; but she finally agreed to maintain peace, 
and Frederick made use of the presence of the Russian troops 
in his camp to win a decided victory over Daun, on the 21st 
of July. 

Austria was discouraged by this new turn of affairs ; the 
war was conducted with less energy on the part of her 
generals, while the Prussians were everywhere animated with a 
fresh spirit. After a siege of several months' Frederick took 
the fortress of Schweidnitz on the 9tli of October; on the 29tli 
of the same month Prince Henry defeated the Austrians at 
Freiberg, in Saxony, and on the 1st of November Ferdinand 
of Brunswick drove the French out of Cassel. After this Fred- 
erick marched upon Dresden, while small detachments were 
sent into Bohemia and Franconia, where they levied contribu- 
tions on the cities and villages and kept the country in a state 
of terror. 

In the meantime negotiations for peace had been carried 
on between England and France. The preliminaries were 
settled at Fontainebleau on the 3d of November, and, although 
the Tory Ministry of George 11. would have willingly seen 
Prussia destroyed, Frederick's popularity was so great in Eng- 
land that the Government was forced to stipulate that the 
French troops should be withdrawn from Germany. The 
'^German Empire," represented by its superannuated Diet at 



What change- suddenly occurred ? What were Peter III.'s measures? What 
did Sweden then do? How was the Russian aUiance broken off? What had 
Frederick gained, meanwhile? How did these changes affect the war? What 
three victories followed? How did Frederick continue the war? What nego- 
tiations were going on? What was the course of England? 



474 THE PEACE OF HUBEBTSBURG. [l763. 

Ratlsbon, became alarmed at its position and concluded an ar- 
mistice with Prussia: so that, before the year closed, Austria 
was left alone to carry on the war. Maria Theresa's personal 
hatred of Frederick, which had been the motive power in the 
combination against him , had not been gratified by his ruin : 
she could only purchase peace with him, after all his losses 
and dangers, by giving up Silesia forever. It was a bitter pill 
for her to swallow, but there was no alternative; she consented, 
with rage and humiliation in her heart. On the 15th of 
February, 1763, peace was signed at Hubertsburg, a little 
hunting - castle near Leipzig, and the Seven Years' War 
was over. 

Frederick was now called "the Great" throughout Europe, 
and Prussia was henceforth ranked among the "Five Great 
Powers," the others being England, France, Austria and Rus- 
sia. His first duty, as after the Second Silesian War, was to 
raise the kingdom from its weak and wasted condition. He 
distributed among the farmers the supplies of grain which had 
been hoarded up for the army, gave them as many artillery 
and cavalry horses as could be spared, practised the most rigid 
economy in the expenses of the Government, and bestowed all 
that could be saved upon the regions which had most suffered. 
The nobles derived the greatest advantage from this support, 
for he considered them the main pillar of his State, and took 
all his officers from their ranks. In order to be prepared for 
any new emergency, he kept up his army, and finally doubled 
it, at a great cost; but, as he only used one-sixth of his own 
income and gave the rest towards supporting this burden, the 
people, although often oppressed by his system of taxation, did 
not openly complain. 

Frederick continued to be sole and arbitrary ruler. He 
was unwilling to grant any participation in the Government 
to the different classes of the people, but demanded that every- 
thing should be trusted to his own "sense of duty." Since 
the people did honor and trust him, — since every day illus- 



What did the "German Empire" do? How was Maria Theresa situated? 
When and where was peace declared? What rank had Prussia pfained ? Wliat 
was Frederick's first duty? By what measures did he fulfil it? What class 
did he favor ? What expense did ho entail upon the people ? What was hia 
manner of governing? 



1765.] FKEDEKICk's POLICY AS KING. 475 

trated his desire to be just towards all , and his own personal 
devotion to the interests of the kingdom , — his policy was ac- 
cepted. He never reflected that the spirit of complete submis- 
sion which he was inculcating weakened the spirit of the people, 
and might prove to be the ruin of Prussia if the royal power 
should fall into base or ignorant hands. In fact, the material 
development of the country was seriously hindered by his ad- 
miration of everything French. He introduced a form of taxa- 
tion borrowed from France, appointed French officials who 
oppressed the people, granted monopolies to manufacturers, 
prohibited the exportation of raw material, and in other ways 
damaged the interests of Prussia, by trying to force a rapid 
growth. 

The intellectual development of the country was equally 
hindered. In 1750 Frederick invited Voltaire to Berlin, and 
the famous French author remained there nearly three years, 
making many enemies by his arrogance and intolerance of 
German habits, until a bitter quarrel broke out and the two 
parted, never to resume their intimacy. It is doubtful whether 
Frederick had the least consciousness of the swift and splendid 
rise of German Literature during the latter years of his reign. 
Although he often declared that he was perfectly willing his 
subjects should think and speak as they pleased, provided 
they obeyed^ he maintained a strict censorship of the press, 
and was very impatient of all opinions which conflicted with 
his own. Thus, while he possessed the clearest sense of justice, 
the severest sense of duty, his policy was governed by his own 
personal tastes and prejudices, and therefore could not be uni- 
versally just. What strength he possessed became a part of 
his government, but what weakness also. 

One other event, of a peaceful yet none the less of a vio- 
lent character, marks Frederick's reign. Within a year after 
the Peace of Hubertsburg Augustus III. of Poland died, and 
Catharine of Russia persuaded the Polish nobles to elect Prince 
Poniatowsky, her favorite, as his successor. The latter granted 



What made it acceptable to the people? How was he injuring Prussia? 
What did he borrow from France? How else damage the country? What 
was liifi intercourse with Voltaire? Of what was he ignorant? How was 
freedom of speech allowed by him? How was his policy weakened? What 
took place in Poland, and when ? 



476 FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND. [l772. 

equal rights to the Protestant sects, which brought on a 
civil war, as the Catholics were in a majority in Poland. A 
long series of diplomatic negotiations followed, in which Prus- 
sia , Austria , and indirectly France , were involved : the end 
was, that on the 5th of August, 1772, Frederick the Great, 
Catharine II. and Maria Theresa (the latter most unwillingly) 
united in taking possession of about one-third of the kingdom 
of Poland, containing 100,000 square miles and 4,500,000 in- 
habitants, and dividing it among them. Prussia received the 
territory between Pomerania and the former Duchy of Prus- 
sia, except only the cities of Dantzig and Thorn , with about 
700,000 inhabitants. This was the region lost to Germany 
in 1466, w4ien the incapable Emperor Frederick III. failed to 
assist the German Order: its population was still mostly Ger- 
man, and consequently scarcely felt the annexation as a wrong, 
yet this does not change the character of the act. 

The last years of Frederick the Great were peaceful. He 
lived to see the American Colonies independent of England, 
and to send a sword of honor to Washington: he lived when 
Voltaire and Maria Theresa were dead, preserving to the last 
his habits of industry and constant supervision of all affairs. 
Like his father, he was fond of walking or riding through the 
parks and streets of Berlin and Potsdam , talking familiarly 
with the people and now and then using his cane upon an 
idler. His Court was Spartan in its simplicity, and nothing 
prevented the people from coming personally to him with 
their complaints. On one occasion, in the streets of Pots- 
dam, he met a company of school-boys, and roughly ad- 
dressed them with : *' Boys, what are you doing here ? Be 
off to your school ! " One of the boldest answered : " Oh, 
you are king, are you, and don't know that there is no 
school to-day ! " Frederick laughed heartily, dropped his up- 
lifted cane, and gave the urchins a piece of money that they 
might better enjoy their holiday. The wind-mill at Potsdam, 
which stood on some ground he wanted for his park, but 
could not get because the miller would not sell and defied him 



What brong-ht on a civil war? Who became involved in the quarrel ? How innch 
of Poland was divided, and when ? What was Prussia's share ? What had the region 
formerly been ? What of Frederick's last years ? W^hat were his habits ? 



1786.] 



DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 



477 




rUBDEBICK THE GKEAT 



to take it arbitrarily, stands to this day, as a token of his re- 
spect for the rights of a poor man. 

When Frederick died, on the 17th of August, 1786, at 
the age of 74, he left a kingdom of 6,000,000 inhabitants, an 
army of 200,000 men, and a sum of 72,000 millions of 



Describe his meeting with the school-boys. What monument remains at 
Pot8dam? When did he die? 



478 MAEIA THERESA. [l750. 

thalers iij the treasury. But, what was of far more consequence 
to Germany, he left behind him an example of patriotism, of 
order, economy and personal duty, which was already fol- 
lowed by other German princes, and an example of resistance 
to foreign interference which restored the pride and revived 
the hopes of the German people. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

UNDER MARIA THERESA AND JOSEPH II. 

(1740—1790.) 

Maria Theresa and her Government.— Death of Francis I. — Character of Jo- 
seph II. — The Partition of Poland. — The Bavarian Succession. — Last Days 
of Maria Theresa. — Republican Ideas in Europe. — Joseph II. as a Revo- 
lutionist.— His Reforms.— Visit of Pope Pius VI.— Alarm of the Catholics. 
—Joseph among the People. — The Order of Jesuits Dissolved by the Pope. 
— Joseph II. 's Disappointments. — His Death. — Progress in Germany. — A 
Germau-Catholio Cliurch proposed by Four Archbishops. — "Enlightened 
Despotism".— The Small States.— Influence of the Great German Authors. 

In the Empress Maria Theresa Frederick the Great had 
an enemy whom he was bound to respect. Since the death of 
Maximilian II., in 1576, Austria had no male ruler so pru- 
dent, just and energetic as this woman. One of her first acts 
was to imitate the military organization of Prussia : then she 
endeavored to restore the finances of the country , which had 
been sadly shattered by the luxury of her predecessors. Her 
position during the two Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' 
War was almost the same as that of her opponent: she fought 
to recover territory, part of which had been ceded to Austria 
and part of wliich she had held by virtue of unsettled claims. 
The only difference was that the very existence of Austria did 
not depend on the result, as was the case with Prussia. 

Maria Theresa, like all the Hapsburgs after Ferdinand I., 



Wliat did he lewe behind? "Wherein had he become an example? 

What was Maria Theresa's character as a ruler? What were her first acts? 
What was her position during the wars with Prussia? What was the only 
difference ? 



1750.] 



HER CHARACTER AND POLICY. 



479 



had grown up under tlie influence of the Jesuits, and her ideas 
of justice were limited by her religious bigotry. In other re- 
spects she was wise and liberal: she effected a complete re- 
organization of the government, establishing special depart- 
ments of justice, industry and commerce, she sought to develop 
the resources of the country, abolished torture, introduced a 




MABIA THEEESA AND HER HUSBAND. 

new criminal code,— in short, she neglected scarcely any im- 
portant interests of the people, except their education and 
their religious freedom. Nevertheless, she was always jealous 
of the assumptions of Rome, and prevented, as far as she was 
able , the immediate dependence of the Catholic clergy upon 

the Pope. ^ 

In 1765, her husband, Francis 1. (of Lorraine and Tus- 
cany) suddenly died, and was succeeded , as German Emperor, 



What fault Lad she? How did she reorganize the government? What in- 
tereats were neglected? What was her position towards Rome? 



480 THE BAYAKIAN SUCCESSION. [1777. 

by her eldest son, Joseph II., who was then 24 years of age. 
He was an earnest, noble-liearted , aspiring man, who had al- 
ready taken his mother's enemy, Frederick the Great, as his 
model for a ruler. Maria Theresa, therefore, kept the Govern- 
ment of the Austrian Empire in her own hands, and the title 
of "Emperor" was not much more than an empty dignity while 
she lived. In August, 1769, Joseph had an interview with 
Frederick at Neisse, in Silesia, at which the Polish question 
was discussed. The latter returned the visit, at Neustadt in 
Moravia, the following year, and the terms of the partition of 
Poland appear to have been then agreed upon between them. 
Nevertheless, after the treaty had been formally drawn up 
and laid before Maria Theresa for her signature, she added 
these words : "Long after I am dead , the effects of this viola- 
tion of all which has hitherto been considered right and holy 
will be made manifest." Joseph, with all his liberal ideas, had 
no such scruples of conscience. He was easily controlled by 
Frederick the Great, who, notwithstanding, never entirely 
trusted him. 

In 1777 a new trouble arose, which for two years held 
Germany on the brink of internal war. The Elector Max Jo- 
seph of Bavaria, the last of the house of Wittelsbach in a 
direct line , died without leaving brother or son , and the next 
heir was the Elector Karl Theodore of the Palatinate. The 
latter was persuaded by Joseph II. to give up about half of 
Bavaria to Austria, and Austrian troops immediately took pos- 
session of the territory. This proceeding created great alarm 
among the German princes, who looked upon it as the begin- 
ning of an attempt to extend the Austrian sway over all the 
other States. Another heir to Bavaria , Duke Karl of Zwei- 
briicken (a little principality on the French frontier), was 
brought forward and presented by Frederick the Great, who, 
in order to support him, sent two armies into the field. 



When did Francis I. die? Who succeeded? What was Joseph's character? 
What did Maria Theresa retain? What interviews took place between Jo- 
seph II. and Frederick the Great? How did Maria Theresa regard the Par- 
tition of Poland? Who controlled Joseph II.? When did a new trouble 
come? Who died, and wlio was t>ie next lieir? What was Joseph II. 's course? 
How was tliis proceeding regarded? What other heir was produced, and by 
whom supported? 



1780.] DEATH OF MARIA THERESA. 481 

Saxony and some of the smaller States took the same side; 
even Maria Theresa desired peace, but Joseph II. persisted in 
his plans until both France and Russia intervened. The mat- 
ter was finally settled in May, 1779, by giving Bavaria to the 
Elector Karl Theodore, and annexing a strip of territory along 
the river Inn, containing about 900 square miles and 139,000 
inhabitants, to Austria. 

Maria Theresa had long been ill of an incurable dropsy, 
and on the 29th of November, 1780, she died, in the 64th 
year of her age. A few days before her death she had herself 
lowered by ropes and pulleys into the vault where the coffin 
of Francis I. reposed. On being drawn up again, one of the 
ropes parted, whereupon she exclaimed: *'He wishes to keep 
me with him, and I shall soon come!" Slie wrote in her 
prayer-book that in regard to matters of justice, the Church, 
the education of her children, and her obligations towards the 
difi'erent orders of her people , she found little cause for self- 
reproach; but that she had been a sinner in making war from 
motives of pride, envy and anger, and in her speech had shown 
too little charity for others. She left Austria in a condition 
of order and material prosperity such as the country had not 
known for centuries. 

When Frederick the Great heard of her death, he said to 
one of his ministers : "Maria Theresa is dead ; now there will 
be a new order of things!" He evidently believed that Jo- 
seph II. would set about indulging his restless ambition for 
conquest. But the latter kept the peace, and devoted himself 
to the interests of Austria, establishing, indeed, a new and 
most astonishing order of things, but of a totally difi'erent na- 
ture from what Frederick had expected. Joseph II. was filled 
with the new ideas of human rights which already agitated 
Europe. The short but illustrious history of the Corsican Re- 
public, the foundation of the new nation of the United States 
of America, the works of French authors advocating demo- 



What interference followed? How and when was the matter finally settled? 
"When did Maria Theresa die? What happened, just before her death ? What 
did she write in her praj'er-book? How did she leave Austria? What did 
Frederick the Great say, and believe? How did Joseph II. act? What ideas 
possessed him? 



482 JOSEPH ll.'s KEFORMS. [l781. 

cracy in society and politics, were beginning to exercise a 
powerful influence in Germany, not so much among the people 
as among the highly educated classes. Thus at the very 
moment when Frederick and Maria Theresa were exercising 
the most absolute form of despotism, and the smaller rulers 
were doing their best to imitate them, the most radical theories 
of republicanism were beginning to be openly discussed, and 
the great Revolution which they occasioned was only a few 
years off. 

Joseph II. was scarcely less despotic in his habits of govern- 
ment than Frederick the Great, and he used his power to force 
new liberties upon a people who were not intelligent enough 
to understand them. He stands almost alone among monarchs, 
as an example of a Revolutionist upon the throne, not only 
granting far more than was ever demanded of his predeces- 
sors, but compelling his people to accept rights which they 
hardly knew how to use. He determined to transform Aus- 
tria, by a few bold measures, into a State which should em- 
body all the progressive ideas of the day, and be a model for 
the world. The plan was high and noble, but he failed be- 
cause he did not perceive that the condition of a people can- 
not be so totally changed, without a wise and gradual pre- 
paration for it. 

He began by reforming the entire civil service of Austria ; 
but, as he took the reform into his own hands and had little 
practical knowledge of the position and duties of the officials, 
many of the changes operated injuriously. In regard to taxa- 
tion, industry and commerce, he followed the theories of 
French writers, which, in many respects, did not apply to the 
state of things in Austria. He abolished the penalty of death, 
put an end to serfdom among the peasantry, cut down the 
privileges of the nobles, and tried, for a short time, the ex- 
periment of a free press. His boldest measure was in regard 
to the Church, which he endeavored to make wholly indepen- 



"What events and works were influencing Germany? "What two extremes 
were rising against each other? What was Joseph II. as a ruler, and how 
did he use his power? How does he stand, among monarchs? How did he 
treat the people? WJiat was his plan? Why did he fail? How did he begin 
the reform? What theories did he follow? What were some of his first 
measures? 



1782.] 



THE POPE VISITS VIENNA. 



483 



dent of Rome. He openly declared that the priests were **the 
most dangerous and most useless class in every country;" he 
suppressed 700 monasteries and turned them into schools or 
asylums, granted the Protestants freedom of worship and all 
rights enjoyed by Catholics, and continued his work in so 
sweeping a manner that the Pope, Pius YL, hastened to Vienna 
in 1782, in the greatest alarm, hoping to restore the influence 
of the Church. Joseph II. received him with external polite- 




JOSEPH n. PLOUGHING. 



ness, but had him carefully watched and allowed no one to 
visit him without his own express permission. After a stay 
of four weeks during which he did not obtain a single conces- 
sion of any importance, the Pope returned to Rome. 

Not content with what he had accomplished, Joseph now 
went further. He gave equal rights to Jews and members of 
the Greek Church, ordered German hymns to be sung in the 



Wliich was the boldest? What did he declare, and do? What effect had 
this course upon the Pope? How was the latter received in Vienna? What 
did be effect ? 



484 REIGN OF JOSEPH II. [l785. 

Catholic Churches and the German Bible to be read, and pro- 
hibited pilgrimages and religious processions. These measures 
gave the priesthood the means of alarming the ignorant 
people, who were easily persuaded that the Emperor intended 
to abolish the Christian religion. They became suspicious and 
hostile towards the one man who was defying the Church and 
the nobles in his efforts to help them. Only the few who came 
into direct contact with him were able to appreciate his sin- 
cerity and goodness. He was fond of going about alone, 
dressed so simply that few recognized him, and almost as many 
stories of his intercourse with the lower classes are told of him 
in Austria as of Frederick the Great in Prussia. On one oc- 
casion he attended a poor sick woman whose daughter took 
him for a physician : on another he took the plow from the 
hands of a peasant, and plowed a few furrows around the field. 
If his reign had been longer, tlie Austrian people would have 
learned to trust him, and many of his reforms might have be- 
come permanent; but he was better understood and loved 
after his death than during his life. 

One circumstance must be mentioned, in explanation of 
the sudden and sweeping character of Joseph II. 's measures 
towards the Church. The Jesuits, by their intrigues and the 
demoralizing influence which they exercised, had made them- 
selves hated in all Catholic countries, and were only tolerated 
in Bavaria and Austria. France, Spain, Naples and Portugal, 
one after the other, banished the Order, and Pope Clement XIV. 
was finally induced, in 1773, to dissolve its connection with 
the Church of Rome. The Jesuits were then compelled to 
leave Austria, and for a time they found refuge only in Russia 
and Prussia, where, through a most mistaken policy, they 
were employed by the governments as teachers. Their expul- 
sion was the sign of a new life for the schools and univer- 
sities, which were released from their paralyzing sway, and 



What further changes did Joseph II. introduce? What did the priesthood 
do? How were the people influenced? How did Joseph II. try to become 
acquainted with the people? What two anecdotes are related of him? How 
were the Jesuits regarded, at this time? Where were they tolerated? What 
countries banished tliem? What was the Pope compelled to do, and when? 
Wliere did the Jesuits find refuge? How were they employed? What efiect 
had their expulsion? 



1790.J DEATH OF JOSEPH II. 485 

Joseph II. evidently supposed that the Church of Rome itself 
had made a step in advance. The Archbishop of Mayence, 
and the Bishop of Treves were noted liberals ; the latter even 
favored a reformation of the Catholic Church, and the Em- 
peror had reason to believe that he would receive at least a 
moral support throughout Germany. He neither perceived the 
thorough demoralization which two centuries of Jesuit rule 
had produced in Austria, nor the settled determination of the 
Papal power to restore the Order as soon as circumstances 
would permit. 

Joseph II.'s last years were disastrous to all his plans. In 
Flanders, which was still a dependency of Austria, the priests 
incited the people to revolt; in Hungary the nobles were bit- 
terly hostile to him, on account of the abolition of serfdom, 
and an alliance with Catharine II. of Russia against Turkey, 
into which he entered in 1788, — chiefly, it seems, in the hope 
of achieving military renown — was in every way unfortunate. 
At the head of an army of 200,000 men , he marched against 
Belgrade, but was repelled by the Turks, and finally returned 
to Vienna with the seeds of a fatal fever in his frame. Russia 
made peace with Turkey before the fortunes of war could be 
retrieved; Flanders declared itself independent of Austria, and 
a revolution in Hungary was only prevented by his taking back 
most of the decrees which had been issued for the emancipa- 
tion of the people. Disappointed and hopeless, Joseph IL suc- 
cumbed to the fever which hung upon him: he died on the 
20th of February, 1790, only 49 years of age. He ordered 
these words to be engraved upon his tomb-stone: "Here lies 
a prince, whose intentions were pure, but who had the misfor- 
tune to see all his plans shattered f History has done justice 
to his character, and the people whom he tried to help learned 
to appreciate his efforts when it was too late. 

The condition of Germany, from the end of the Seven 
Years' War to the close of the eighteenth century, shows a re- 
markable progress , when we contrast it with the first half of 



What did Joseph II. suppose? Who favored a reformation of the Catho- 
lic Church? Wliat did Joseph II. fail to see? What happened in Flanders 
and Hungary? What alliance did he form? When? Why? What campaign 
did he make? What occuired in Russia? Flanders? Hungary? When did 
Joseph II. die? What did he order? How is he appreciated? 



486 A GEEMAN-CATHOLIC CHUECH. [l786. 

the century. The stern, heroic character of Frederick the 
Great, the strong, humane aspirations of Joseph II., and the 
rapid growth of democratic ideas all over the world, affected 
at last many of the smaller German States. Their imitation 
of the pomjp and state of Louis XIV., which they had prac- 
tised for nearly a hundred years, came to an end; the princes 
were now possessed with the idea of "an enlightened despo- 
tism" — that is, while retaining their absolute power, they en- 
deavored to exercise it for the good of the people. There were 
some dark exceptions to this general change for the better. 
The rulers of Hesse-Cassel and Wiirtemberg, for example, sold 
whole regiments of their subjects to England, to be used 
against the American Colonies in the War of Independence. 
Although many of these soldiers remained in the United States, 
and encouraged, by their satisfaction with their new homes, 
the later German emigration to America, the princes who 
sold them covered their own memories with infamy, and de- 
servedly so. 

There was a remarkable movement, about the same time, 
among the Catholic Archbishops, who were also temporal 
rulers, in Germany. The dominions of these priestly princes, 
especially along the Rhine, showed what had been the charac- 
ter of such a form of government. There were about 1000 in- 
habitants, 50 of whom were priests and 260 beggars, to every 
22 square miles! The difference between the condition of their 
States and that of the Protestant territories adjoining them 
was much more strongly marked than it now is between the 
Protestant and Catholic Cantons of Switzerland. By a singular 
coincidence, the chief Catholic Archbishops were at this time 
men of intelligence and humane aspirations, who did their best 
to remedy the scandalous misrule of their predecessors. In 
the year 1786, the Archbisliops of Mayence, Treves, Cologne 
and Salzburg came together at Ems, and agreed upon a plan 
of founding a national German-Catholic Church, independent 



"What was the condition of Germany? What influences affected the smaller 
German States? What did they give up? What idea adopt? What exceptions 
were there? How are those princes regarded? What other movement oc- 
curred? What was the effect of priestly rule upon the people? What were 
the Catholic Archbishops, at this timo? 



1790.] "enlightened DESPOTISM." 487 

of Rome. The priests , in their incredible ignorance and big- 
otry, opposed the movement, and even Joseph II. , who had 
planned the very same thing for Austria , most inconsistently 
refused to favor it. The plan, therefore, failed; but the mem- 
ory of it stands to shame a large body of the German Cath- 
olics of 1873, who are doing their best to restore the days 
of Henry IV. and Canossa. 

It must be admitted , as an apology for the theory of "an 
enlightened despotism ," that there was no representative go- 
vernment in Europe at the time, where there was greater 
justice and order than in Prussia or in Austria under Joseph II. 
The German Empire had become a mere mockery; its per- 
petual Diet at Ratisbon was little more than a farce. Poland, 
Holland and Sweden, where there was a Legislative Assembly, 
were in a most unfortunate condition : the Swiss Republic was 
far from being republican, and even England, under George IH., 
did not present a fortunate model of parliamentary govern- 
ment. The United States of America were too far ofif and too 
little known, to exercise much influence. Some of the smaller 
German States, which were despotisms in the hands of wise 
and humane rulers, thus played a most benificent part in pro- 
tecting, instructing and elevating the people. 

Baden, Brunswick, Anhalt-Dessau, Holstein, Saxe-Gotha, 
and especially Saxe- Weimar, became cradles of science and 
literature. Karl Augustus, of the last-named State, called 
Herder, Wieland, Goethe, Schiller and other illustrious authors 
to his court, and created such a distinguished circle in letters 
and the arts that Weimar was named "the German Athens." 
The works of these great men , which had been preceded by 
those of Lessing and Klopstock, gave an immense impetus to 
the intellectual development of Germany. It was the first great 
advance made by the people since the days of Luther, and its 
effect extended gradually to the courts of less intelligent and 



Which ones met, when and where? On what did they agree? Who op- 
posed the movement? What was its fate? What favored the theory of "en- 
lightened despotism?" What had the German Empire become? What other 
representative governments were in a bad way? How did Switzerland and 
England stand? What prevented the United States from having any influence? 
What did some of the smaller States do? What States encouraged science 
and literature? Wl^at Prince thus specially distinguished himself? 



488 THE SMALLER STATES. [l790. 

humane princes. Even the profligate Duke Karl Eugene of 
Wiirtemberg reformed in a measure, established the KarPs- 
School where Schiller was educated, and tried, so far as he 
knew how, to govern justly. Frederick Augustus of Saxony 
refrained from imitating his dissolute and tyrannical ancestors, 
and his land began to recover from its long sufferings. As 
for the scores of petty States, which contained — as was iron- 
ically said — "twelve subjects and one Jew," and were not 
much larger than an average Illinois farm, they were mostly 
despotic and ridiculous ; but they were too weak to impede the 
general march of progress. 

Among the greater States, only Bavaria remained in the 
background. Although temporarily deprived of his beloved 
Jesuits, the Elector held fast to all the prejudices they had in- 
culcated, and kept his people iu ignorance. To this day they 
remain behind all their German brethren, even in Austria, 
in intelligence and enterprise. 



"What influence did the great authors exercise? "What change took placo 
in Wiirtemberg? In Saxony? What were the petty States? Which State re- 
mained in the background? What was the Elector's course? 



J790.J CONDITION OF EUKOPE. 489 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

FROM THE DEATH OF JOSEPH II. TO THE END OF THE GERMAN 
EMPIRE. — (1790 — 1806.) 

The Crisis in Europe. — Frederick William II. in Prussia. — Leopold IT. in 
Austria. — His Short Reign. — Francis II. Succeeds.— French Claims in Al- 
Batia. — War Declared against Austria. — The Prussian and Austrian In- 
vasion of France.— Vahiiy and Jemappes.— The First CoAiiiTiON.— Cam- 
paign of 1793.— French Successes.— Hesitation of Prussia. — The Treaty of 
Basel.— Catharine II.'s Designs. — Second Partition of Poland.— Kosciusko's 
Defeat. — Suwarrow Takes Warsaw. — End of Poland. — French Invasion of 
Germany.— Success of the Republic— Bonaparte in Italy.— Campaign of 
1796.— Austrian Successes. — Bonaparte Victorious. — Peace of Campo For- 
mio.'— New Demands of France. — The Second Coalition. — Smvarrow in 
Italy and Switzerland.— Bonaparte First Consul. — Victories at Marengo 
and Hohenlinden. — Peace of Luneville.— The German States Reconstructed, 
— Character of the Political Changes.— Supremacy of France.— Hannover 
Invaded.— Bonaparte Emperor.— The Third Coalition.— French March to 
Vienna. — Austerlitz. — Treaty of Presburg. — End of the "Holy Roman 
Empire." 

The mantles of both Frederick the Great and Joseph II. 
fell upon incompetent successors, at a time when all Europe 
was agitated by the beginning of the French Revolution, and 
when, therefore , the greatest political wisdom was required 
of the rulers of Germany. It was a crisis, the like of which 
never before occurred in the history of the world, and probably 
never will occur again; for, at the time when it came, the 
people enjoyed fewer rights than they had possessed during 
the Middle Ages, and the monarchs exercised more power 
than they had claimed for at least fifteen hundred years be- 
fore, while general intelligence and the knowledge of human 
rights were increasing everywhere. The fabrics of society and 
government were ages behind the demands of the time: a 
change was inevitable, and because no preparation had been 
made, it came through violence. 

Frederick the Great was succeeded by his nephew, Fred- 
erick William II., whom , with an accountable neglect, he had 



How was Europe agitated, at the death of Joseph II.? What was the po- 
litical situation? Why was the change a violent one? 



490 ACCESSION OF FKANCIS II. [l792. 

not instructed in the duties of government. The latter, never- 
theless, began with changes which gave him a great popularity. 
He abolished the French system of collecting duties, the mo- 
nopolies which were burdensome to the people, and lightened 
the weight of their taxes. But, by unnecessary interference 
in the affairs of Holland (because his sister was the wife of 
William V. of Orange), he spent all the surplus which Fred- 
erick had left in the Prussian treasury; he was weak, disso- 
lute and fickle in his character; he introduced the most rigid 
measures in regard to the press and religious worship, and 
soon taught the people the difference between a bigoted and 
narrow-minded and an intelligent and conscientious king. 

Joseph n. was succeeded by his brother, Leopold H., who 
for 25 years had been Grand- Duke of Tuscany, where he had 
governed with great mildness and prudence. His policy had 
been somewhat similar to that of Joseph H., but characterized 
by greater caution and moderation. When he took the crown 
of Austria, and immediately afterwards that of the German 
Empire, he materially changed his plan of government. He 
was not rigidly oppressive, but he checked the evidences of a 
freer development among the people, which Joseph H. had 
fostered. He limited, at once, the pretensions of Austria, 
cultivated friendly relations with Prussia, which was then 
inclined to support the Austrian Netherlands in their revolt, 
ajid took steps to conclude peace with Turkey. He succeeded, 
also, in reconciling the Hungarians to the Hapsburg rule, and 
might, possibly, have given a fortunate turn to the destinies 
of Austria, if he had lived long enough. But he died on the 
1st of March, 1792, after a reign of exactly two years, and 
was succeeded by his son, Francis IL, who was elected Emperor 
of Germany on the 5th of July, in Frankfort. 

By this time the great changes which had taken place in 
France began to agitate all Euroj^e. The French National 



Who succeeded Frederick the Great? "What were his first measures? How 
did he exliaust the Prussian treasury? "What was his character? How did 
he disappoint the people? Who succeeded Joseph II.? What had been liis 
policy in Tuscany? In what manner did he change, as Emperor? What 
were his first measures? Whom did he also reconcile? When did he die, 
and who succeeded? 



1792.] 



FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 



491 



Assembly very soon disregarded the provisions of the Peace of 
Westphalia (in 1648), which had only ceded the possessio.ns 
of Austria in Alsatia to France, allowing various towns and 
districts on the AYest 
bank of the Upper 
Rhine to be held by 
German Princes. The 
entire authority over 
these scattered posses- 
sions was now claimed 
by France, and neither 
Prussia, under Frede- 
rick William XL, nor 
Austria under Leo- 
pold II. resisted the 
act otherwise than by 
a protest which had 
no effect. Although 
the French queen, 
Marie Antoinette, was 
Leopold II. 's sister, his 
policy was to preserve 
peace with the Revo- 
lutionary party which 
controlled France. Fre- 
derick William's min- 
ister, Hertzberg, pur- 
sued the same policy, 
but so much against 
tlie will of the king, 
who was determined 
to defend the cause oi 
absolute monarchy by 

trying to rescue Louis XVI. from his increasing dangers, that 
before the close of 1791 Hertzberg was dismissed from office. 
Then Frederick William endeavored to create a "holy alliance" 




FKANCIS II., THE LAST GERMAN EMPEIiOK. 



"What was the course of the French National Assembly, in regard to Al- 
satia? What did France claim? How was it resisted? What was Leopold II. 'a 
policy? What did Frederick William II. determine? 



492 CAMPAIGN IN FKANCE. [l792. 

of Prussia, Austria, Russia and Sweden against France , but 
only succeeded far enough to provoke a bitter feeling of hos- 
tility to Germany in the French National Assembly. 

The nobles who had been driven out of France by the 
Revolution were welcomed by the Archbishops of Mayence and 
Treves, and the rulers of smaller States along the Rhine, who 
allowed them to plot a counter-revolution. An angry diplo- 
matic intercourse between France and Austria followed, and 
in April 1792, the former country declared war against "the 
king of Bohemia and Hungary," as Francis II. was styled by 
the French Assembly. In fact, war was inevitable; for the 
monarchs of Europe were simply waiting for a good chance to 
intervene and crush the republican movement in France, which, 
on its side, could only establish itself through military suc- 
cesses. Although neither party was prepared for the struggle, 
the energy and enthusiasm of the new men who governed 
France gained an advantage, at the start, over the lumber- 
ing slowness of the German governments. It was not the 
latter, this time, but their enemy, who profited by the example 
of Frederick the Great. 

Prussia and Austria, supported by some but not. by all 
of the smaller States, raised two armies, one of 110,000 men 
under the Duke of Brunswick, which was to march through 
Belgium to Paris, while the other, 50,000 strong, was to take 
possession of Alsatia. The movement of the former was 
changed, and then delayed by differences of opinion among 
the royal and ducal commanders. It started from Mayence, 
and consumed three weeks in marching to the French frontier, 
only 90 miles distant. Longwy and Verdun w^ere taken with- 
out much difficulty, and then the advance ceased. The French 
under Dumouriez and Kellermann united their forces, held 
the Germans in check at Valmy, on the 20th of September, 
1792, and then compelled them to retrace their steps towards 
tlie Rhine. While the Prussians were retreating through 



"What alliance did he attempt, and how succeed? "Where did the exiled 
French nobles take refusfe? What foUowed? What did Franco do, and when? 
Why was war inevitable? Who had the advantage, at the start? What two 
armies were raised in Germany? How was the first of these delayed? How 
did it move into France, and how far? By whom was the advance checked, 
where, and when? 



1793.] THE FIKST COALITION. 493 

storms of rain, their ranks thinned by disease, Dumouriez 
wheeled upon Flanders, met the Austrian army at Jemappes, 
and gained such a decided victory that by the end of the year 
all Belgium, and even the city of Aix-la-Chapelle, fell into the 
hands of the French. 

At the same time another French army, under General 
Custine, marched to the Rhine, took Speyer, Worms and 
finally Mayence, which city was made the head-quarters of a 
republican movement intended to influence Germany. But 
these successes were followed, on the 2lst of January, 1793, 
by the execution of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette,- -an 
act which alarmed every feigning family in Europe and pro- 
voked the most intense enmity towards the French Republic. 
An immediate alliance — called the First Coalition — was 
made by England, Holland, Prussia, Austria, *'the German 
Empire," Sardinia, Naples and Spain, against France. Only 
Catharine II. of Russia declined to join, not because she did 
not favor the design of crushing France, but because she 
would thus be left free to carry out her plans of aggrandizing 
Russia at the expense of Turkey and Poland. 

The greater part of the year 1793 was on the whole 
favorable to the allied powers. An Austrian victory at Neer- 
winden, on the 18th of March, compelled the French to eva- 
cuate Belgium: in July the Prussians reconquered Mayence, 
and advanced into Alsatia ; and a combined English and Span- 
isli fleet took possession of Toulon. But there was no unity 
.of action among the enemies of France ; even the German suc- 
cesses were soon neutralized by the mutual jealousy and mis- 
trust of Prussia and Austria, and the war became more and 
more unpopular. Towards the close of the year the French 
armies were again victorious in Flanders and along the Rhine : 
their generals had discovered that the rapid movements and 
rash, impetuous assaults of their new troops were very effec- 
tual against the old, deliberate, scientific tactics of the Ger- 



What other victory was gained by Dumouriez? What were its results? 
What were General Custine's victories? What act followed? What effect did 
it produce? What alliance was made against France? What was Catha- 
rine ll.'s policy? What of the year 1793? What three advantages were gained 
by the Allies? How were they neutralized? 



494 THE TREATY OF BASEL. [l795. 

mans. Spain, Holland and Sardinia proved to be almost use- 
less as allies, and the strength of the Coalition was reduced to 
England, Prussia and Austria. 

In 1794 a fresh attempt was made. Prussia furnished 
50,000 men, who were paid by England, and were hardly less 
mercenaries than the troops sold by Hesse-Cassel 20 years 
before. In June, the French under Jourdan were victorious 
at Fleurus, and Austria decided to give up Belgium: the 
Prussians gained some advantages in Alsatia, but showed no 
desire to carry on the war as the hirelings of another country. 
Frederick William 11. and Francis II. were equally suspicious 
of each other, equally weak and vacillating, divided between 
their desire of overturning the French Eepublic on the one 
side, and securing new conquests of Polish territory on the 
other. Thus the war was prosecuted in the most languid and 
inefficient manner, and by the end of the year the French 
were masters of all the territory west of the Rhine, from 
Alsatia to the sea. During the following winter they assisted 
in overturning the former government of Holland, where a 
new "Batavian Republic" was established. Frederick William II, 
thereupon determined to withdraw from the Coalition, and 
make a separate peace with France. His minister, Hardenberg, 
concluded a treaty at Basel, on the 5th of April, 1795, by 
which Cleves and other Prussian territory west of the Lower 
Rhine was relinquished to France, and all of Germany north 
of a line drawn from the river Main eastward to Silesia was 
declared to be in a state of peace during the war which France 
still continued to wage with Austria. 

The chief cause of Prussia's change of policy seems to 
have been her fear that Russia would absorb the whole of 
Poland. This was probably the intention of Catharine H., for 
she had vigorously encouraged the war between Germany 
and France, while declining to take part in it. The Poles 



When were the French again victorious, and how? Who form(»d the 
strength of the Coalition? What fresh attempt was made in 1794? What ad- 
vantage did the French gain? The Prussians? How were Frederick William II. 
and Francis II. divided? What happened by the end of the year? What 
followed in Holland? What did Frederick William do? When was the 
Treaty of Basel concluded? What were its provisions? What caused this 
cliange of policy? 



1794.] SUBJECTION OF POLAND. 495 

themselves, now more divided than ever, soon furnished her 
with a pretext for interference. They had adopted an heredi- 
tary instead of an elective monarchy, together with a Consti- 
tution similar to that of France ; but a portion of the nobility 
rose in arms against these changes, and were supported by 
Russia. Then Frederick William II. insisted on being admitted 
as a partner in the business of interference, and Catharine If. 
reluctantly consented. In January, 1793, the two powers 
agreed to divide a large portion of Polish territory between 
them, Austria taking no active part in the matter. Prussia 
received the cities of Thorn and Dantzig, the provinces of 
Posen, Gnesen and Kalisch, and other territory, amounting to 
more than 20,000 square miles, with 1,000,000 inhabitants. 
The only resistance made to the entrance of the Russian army 
into Poland, was headed by Kosciusko, one of the heroes of 
the American war of Independence. Although defeated at 
Dubienka, where he fought with 4,000 men against 16,000, 
the hopes of the Polish patriots centred upon him, and when 
they rose in 1794 to prevent the approaching destruction of 
their country, they made him Dictator. Russia was engaged 
in a war with Turkey, and had not troops enough to quell the 
insurrection, so Prussia was called upon to furnish her share. 
In June, 1794, Frederick William himself marched to Warsaw, 
where a Russian army arrived about the same time: the city 
was besieged, but not attacked, owing to quarrels and dif- 
ferences of opinion among the commanders. At the end of 
three months, the king got tired and went back to Berlin; 
several small battles were fought, in which the Poles had the 
greater advantage, but nothing decisive happened until the 
end of October, when the Russian General Suwarrow arrived, 
after a forced march from the seat of war on the Danube. 

He first defeated Kosciusko, who was taken prisoner, and 
then marched upon Warsaw. On the 4th of November the 
suburb of Praga was taken by storm, with terrible slaughter, 



What was Catharine II.'s object? What had the Poles done? Who de- 
manded to be a partner? What was determined, and when? What did Prussia 
receive? Who resisted the Kussians? Where was he defeated? When made 
Dictator? What was Russia's strength? In what manner did Frederick Wil- 
liam assist her? State what happened, until the end of October. 

22 



496 FKENCH INVASION OF GEKMANY. [l796. 

and three days afterwards Warsaw fell. This was the end of 
Poland, as an independent nation. Although Austria had taken 
no part in the war, she now negotiated for a share in the 
Third (and last) Partition, which had been decided upon by 
Russia and Prussia, even before the Polish revolt furnished a 
pretext for it. Catharine II. favored the Austrian claims, and 
even concluded a secret agreement with Francis II., without 
consulting Prussia. When this had been made known, in 
August, 1795, Prussia protested violently against it, but 
without effect: Russia took more than half the remaining 
territory, Austria nearly one-quarter, and Prussia received 
about 20,000 square miles more, including the city of 
Warsaw. 

After the Treaty of Basel, which secured peace to the 
northern half of Germany, Catharine IL, victorious over Turkey 
and having nothing more to do in Poland, united with Eng- 
land and Austria against France. It was agreed that Russia 
should sent both an army and a fleet, Austria raise 200,000 
men, and England contribute £4,000,000 annually towards 
the expenses of the war. During the summer of 1795, how- 
ever, little was done. The French still held everything west 
of the Rhine, and the Austrians watched them from the op- 
posite bank: the strength of both was nearly equal. Suddenly, 
in September, the French crossed the river, took Diisseldorf 
and Mannheim, with immense quantities of military stores, 
and completely laid waste the country in the neighborhood of 
these two cities, treating the people with the most inhuman 
barbarity. Then the Austrians rallied, repulsed the French, 
in their turn, and before winter recovered possession of nearly 
all the western bank. 

In January, 1796, an armistice was declared: Spain and 
Sardinia had already made peace with France, and Austria 
showed signs of becoming weary of the war. The French 
Republic, however, found itself greatly strengthened by its 



What were Suwarrow's successes? What was Austria's course? Who fa- 
vored it? How was Poland divided? What did Catliariue II. next do? What 
agreement was made? What was the position of the armies, in 1795? What 
di»l the French do, in September? What movement of the Austrians followed? 
Wheuj^ and under what circumstances, was an armistice concluded? 



1796.] Bonaparte's campaign in italy. 497 

military successes: its minister of war, Carnot, and its ambi- 
tious young generals, Bonaparte, Moreau, Massena, &c. were 
winning fame and power by the continuance of hostilities, and 
the system of making the conquered territory pay all the ex- 
penses of the war (in some cases much more), was a great ad- 
vantage to the French national treasury. Thus the war, 
undertaken by the Coalition for the destruction of the French 
Republic, had only strengthened the latter, which was in the 
best condition for continuing it at a time when the allies 
(except, perhaps, England) were discouraged, and ready for 
peace. 

The campaign of 1796 was most disastrous to Austria. 
France had an army under Jourdan on the Lower Rhine, an- 
other under Moreau — who had replaced General Pichegru — on 
the Upper Rhine , and a third under Bonaparte in Italy. The 
latter began his movement early in April; he proigised his 
unpaid, ragged and badly-fed troops that he would give them 
Milan in four weeks, and he kept his word. Plunder and 
victory heightened their faith in his splendid military genius : 
he advanced with irresistible energy, passing the Po, the Adda 
at Lodi, subjecting the Venetian Republic, forming new re- 
publican States out of the old Italian Duchies, and driving 
the Austrians everywhere before him. By the end of the year 
the latter held only the strong fortress of Mantua. 

The French armies on the Rhine were opposed by an 
Austrian army of equal strength, commanded by the Arch- 
duke Karl, a general of considerable talent, but still governed 
by the military ideas of a former generation. Instead of at- 
tacking, he waited to be attacked; but neither Jourdan nor 
Moreau allowed him to wait long. The former took possession 
of the Eastern bank of the Lower Rhine : when the Archduke 
marched against him, Moreau crossed into Baden and seized 
the passes of the Black Forest. Then the Archduke, having 
compelled Jourdan to fall back, met the latter and was de- 
feated. Jourdan returned a second time, Moreau advanced. 



Why was the French Eepublic inclined to carry on the war? How had 
the plans of the Coalition been defeated? What armies had France in 179G ? 
What was Bonaparte's first success in Italy? How did he follow it up during 
the summer? Who opposed the French armies on the Rhine? What wero 
his tactics? What movements were made by Jourdan and Moreau? 



498 DEFEAT OF AUSTRIA. [1797. 

and all Baden, Wiirtemberg, Franconia, and the greater part 
of Bavaria fell into the hands of the French. These States 
not only submitted without resistance, but used every exertion 
to pay enormous contributions to their conquerors. One- 
fourth of what they gave would have prevented the invasion, 
and changed the subsequent fate of Germany. Frankfort 
paid ten millions of florins, Nuremberg three, Bavaria ten, 
and the other cities and principalities in proportion, besides 
furnishing enormous quantities of supplies to the French 
troops. All these countries purchased the neutrality of 
France, by allowing free passage to the latter, and agreeing 
further to pay heavy monthly contributions towards the ex- 
penses of the war. Even Saxony, which had not been invaded, 
joined in this agreement. 

Towards the end of summer the Archduke twice defeated 
Jourdan and forced him to retreat across the Rhine. This 
rendered Moreau's position in Bavaria untenable: closely fol- 
lowed by the Austrians, he accomplished without loss that 
famous retreat through the Black Forest which is considered 
a greater achievement than many victories, in the annals of 
war. Thus, at the close of the year 1796, all Germany east 
of the Rhine, plundered, impoverished and demoralized, was 
again free from the French. This defeated Bonaparte's plan, 
which was to advance from Italy through the Tyrol, effect a 
junction with Moreau in Bavaria, and then march upon Vienna. 
Nevertheless, he determined to carry out his portion of it, re- 
gardless of the fortunes of the other French armies. On the 
2d of February, 1797, Mantua surrendered; the Archduke 
Karl, who had been sent against him, was defeated, and Bo- 
naparte followed with such daring and vigor that by the 
middle of April he had reached the little town of Leoben, in 
Styria, only a few days' march from Vienna. Although he 
had less than 50,000 men, while the Archduke still had about 
25,000, a:td the Austrians, Styrians and Tyrolese, now tho- 



What others followed? How did the South-German States act? What sub- 
sidies were paid to France? How did they purchase the neutrality of France? 
What other State joined? What success had the Archduke Karl? What 
was Moreau forced to do? What was the situation, at the end of 1796? What 
had been Bonaparte's plan? What did he determine to do? Describe his 
successes. 



1798.] THE CONGRESS OF RASTATT. 499 

roughly aroused, demanded weapons and leaders, Francis II., 
instead of encouraging their patriotism and boldly undertak- 
ing a movement which might have cut off Bonaparte, began 
to negotiate for peace. Of course the conqueror dictated his 
own terms: the preliminaries were settled at once, an armis- 
tice followed, and on the 17th of October, 1797, peace was 
concluded at Campo Formio. 

Austria gave Lombardy and Belgium to France, to both 
of which countries she had a tolerable claim ; but she also gave 
all the territory west of the Rhine, which she had no right to 
do, even under the constitution of the superannuated "German 
Empire." On the other hand, Bonaparte gave to Austria Dal- 
matia, Istria, and nearly all the territory of the Republic of 
Venice, to which he had not the shadow of a right. He had 
already conquered and suppressed the Republic of Genoa, so 
that these two old and illustrious States vanished from the 
map of Europe, only two years after Poland. 

Nevertheless, the illusion of a German Empire was kept 
up, so far as the form was concerned. A Congress of all the 
States was called to meet at Rastatt, in Baden, and confirm 
the Treaty of Campo Formio. But France had become ar- 
rogant through her astonishing success, and in May, 1798, 
her ambassadors suddenly demanded a number of new conces- 
sions, including the annexation of points east of the Rhine, the 
levelling of the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein (opposite Coblentz), 
and the possession of the islands at the mouth of the river. 
At this time Bonaparte was absent, on his expedition to Egypt, 
and only England, chiefly by means of her navy, was carrying 
on the war with France. The new demands made at the Con- 
gress of Rastatt not only prolonged the negotiations, but 
provoked throughout Europe the idea of another Coalition 
against the French Republic. The year 1798, however, came 
to an end without any further action, except such as was se- 
cretly plotted at the various Courts. 



How did the Austrian people act? What did Francis II. do? When and 
where was peace declared? What did Austria yield? What did Bonaparte 
give in return? What two old Republics had he suppressed? What Congress 
was called in Germany ? What new demands were made by France, and when? 
Where was Bonaparte? Who was carrying on the war? What was the ef- 
fect of the demands of Franoe? 



500 SUWARKOW IN ITALY. [l799. 

Early in 1799, the Second Coalition was formed between 
England, Russia (where Paul I. had succeeded Catharine II. in 
1796), Austria, Naples and Turkey: Spain and Prussia re- 
fused to join. An Austrian army under the Archduke defeated 
Jourdan in March, while another, supported by Naples, was 
successful against the French in Italy. Meanwhile, the Con- 
gress continued to sit at Rastatt, in the foolish hope of mak- 
ing peace after war had again begun. The approach of the 
Austrian troops finally dissolved it; but the two French am- 
bassadors, who left for France on the evening of April 28th, 
were waylaid and murdered near the city by some Austrian 
hussars. No investigation of this outrage was ever ordered; 
the general belief is that the Court of Yienna was responsible 
for it. The act was as mad as it was infamous, for it stirred 
the entire French people into fury against Germany. 

In the spring of 1799, a Russian army commanded by Su- 
warrow arrived in Italy, and in a short time completed the 
work begun by the Austrians. The Roman Republic was over- 
thrown and Pope Pius VII. restored: all Northern Italy, ex- 
cept Genoa, was taken from the French ; and then , finding his 
movements hampered by the jealousy of the Austrian generals, 
Suwarrow crossed the St. Gothard with his army, fighting his 
way through the terrific gorges of the Alps. To avoid the 
French General, Massena, who had been victorious at Zurich, 
he was compelled to choose the most lofty and difficult passes, 
and his march over them was a marvel of daring and endurance. 
This was the end of his campaign, for the Emperor Paul, 
suspicious of Austria and becoming more friendly to France, 
soon afterwards recalled him and his troops. During the cam- 
paign of this year, the English army under the Duke of York, 
had miserably failed in the Netherlands, but the Archduke, 
although no important battle was fought, held the French 
thoroughly in check along the frontier of the Rhine. 

The end of the year , and of the century , brought a great 



When -was the Second Coalition formed ? "Who composed it ? "What Aus- 
trian successes followed? How was the Congress dissolved? What act then 
occurred? Who is supposed to have been responsible? What was the effect ? 
What happened in the spring of 1799? What did Suwarrow accomplish? 
Why did he leave Italy? Wliat march was lie compelled to make? Why was 
he recalled? What had the Duke of York done? The Archduke Karl? 



1799.] BONAPARTE, FIEST CONSUL. 501 

change in the destinies of France. Bonaparte had returned 
from Egypt, and on the 9th of November, by force of arms, 
he overthrew the Government and established the Consulate 
in the place of the Republic , with himself as First Consul for 
ten years. Being now practically Dictator, he took matters 
into his own hands, and his first measure was to propose peace 
to the Coalition, on the basis of the Treaty of Campo Formio. 
This was rejected by England and Austria, who stubbornly 
believed that the fortune of the war was at last turning to 
their side. In Prussia, Frederick William II. had died in No- 
vember, 1797, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick Wil- 
liam III., who was a man of excellent personal qualities , but 
without either energy, ambition or clear intelligence. Bona- 
parte's policy was simply to keep Prussia neutral, and he found 
no difficulty in maintaining the peace which had been con- 
cluded at Basel nearly five years before. England chiefly took 
part in the war by means of her navy, and by contributions 
of money, so that France, with the best generals in the world 
and soldiers flushed with victory, was only called upon to 
meet Austria in the field. 

At this crisis, the Archduke Karl, Austria's single good 
general, threw up his command, on account of the interference 
of the Court of Vienna with his plans. His place was filled 
by the Archduke John, a boy of nineteen, under whom was an 
army of 100,000 men, scattered in a long line from the Alps 
to Frankfort. Moreau easily broke through this barrier, over- 
ran Baden and Wurtemberg, and was only arrested for a short 
time by the fortifications of Ulm. While these events were 
occurring, another Austrian army under Melas besieged Mas- 
sena in Genoa. Bonaparte collected a new force , with such 
rapidity and secrecy that his plan was not discovered, made a 
heroic march over the St. Bernard pass of the Alps in May, 
and came down upon Italy like an avalanche. Genoa, thou- 
sands of whose citizens perished with hunger during the siege, 



What happened in France, at the end of the year? What was Bonaparte's 
first measure? Why was it rejected? Who was king in Prussia? What was 
Bonaparte's policy towards him? How did England carry on the war? What 
now occurred in Austria? How did the Archduke John station his forces, 
and what followed? What was going on in Italy? What did Bonaparte do? 



502 MARENGO AND HOHENLINDEN. [18OO. 

had already surrendered to the Austrians; but, when the lat- 
ter turned to repel Bonaparte, they were cut to pieces on the 
field of Marengo, on the 14th of June, 1800. This magni- 
ficent victory gave all Northern Italy, as far as the river Mincio, 
into the hands of the French. 

Again Bonaparte offered peace to Austria, on the same 
basis as before. An armistice was concluded, and Francis II, 
made signs of accepting the offer of peace, but only that he 
might quietly recruit his armies. When, therefore, the armis- 
tice expired, on the 25th of November, Moreau immediately 
advanced to attack the new Austrian army of nearly 90,000 
men, which occupied a position along the river Inn. On the 
3d of December, the two met at Hohenlinden, and the French, 
after a bloody struggle, were completely victorious. There 
was now, apparently, nothing to prevent Moreau from march- 
ing upon Vienna, and the Archduke Karl, who had been sent 
in all haste to take command of the demoralized Austrians, 
was compelled to ask for an armistice upon terms very humil- 
iating to the Hapsburg pride. 

After all its combined haughtiness and incompetency, the 
Court of Vienna gratefully accepted such terms as it could get. 
Francis II. sent one of his ministers, Coblenzl, who met Joseph 
Bonaparte at Luneville (in Lorraine), and there, an the 9th of 
February, 1801, peace was concluded. Its chief provisions 
were those of the Treaty of Campo Formio : all the territory 
west of the Rhine, from Basel to the sea, was given to France, 
together with all Northern Italy west of the Adige. The Duke 
of Modena received part of Baden, and the Duke of Tuscany 
Salzburg. Other temporal princes of Germany, who lost part 
or the whole of their territory by the treaty , were compen- 
sated by secularizing the dominions of the priestly rulers, and 
dividing them among the former. Thus the States governed 
by Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots or other clerical dignitaries, 
nearly 100 in number, were abolished at one blow, and what 



Wliat great battle followed? Its result? What was Bonaparte's course? 
Francis Il.'s? What happened when the armistice expired? What celebrated 
ba tie was fousrht? What was the Archduke Karl forced to do? The Court 
of Vienna? When, and by whom, was peace concluded? What territory did 
France gain? How were the German princes compensated? 



1803.] RECONSTRUCTION OF GERMANY. 503 

little was left of the fabric of the old German Empire fell to 
pieces. The division of all this territory among the other 
States gave rise to new difficulties and disputes, which were 
not settled for two years longer. The Diet appointed a special 
Commission to arrange the matter; but, inasmuch as Bona- 
parte, through his Minister Talleyrand, and Alexander I. of 
Russia (the Emperor Paul having been murdered in 1801), 
intrigued in every possible way to enlarge the smaller Ger- 
man States and prevent the increase of Austria , the final ar- 
rangements were made quite as much by the two foreign powers 
as by the Commission of the German Diet. 

On the 27th of April, 1803, the decree of partition was is- 
sued, suddenly changing the map of Germany. Only six free 
cities were left out of 52, — Frankfort, Hamburg, Bremen, 
Liibeck , Nuremberg and Augsburg : Prussia received three 
bishoprics (Hildesheim, Miinster and Paderborn), and a num- 
ber of abbeys and cities , including Erfurt, amounting to four 
times as much as she had lost on the left bank of the Rhine. 
Baden was increased to double its former size by the remains 
of the Palatinate (including Heidelberg and Mannheim), the 
city of Constance, and a number of abbeys and monasteries: a 
great part of Franconia, with Wiirzburg and Bamberg, was 
added to Bavaria. Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Nas- 
sau were much enlarged, and most of the other States re- 
ceived smaller additions. At the same time the rulers of Baden, 
Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel and Salzburg were dignified by the 
new title of ^'Electors" — when they never would be called 
upon to elect another German Emperor! 

An impartial study of these events will show that they 
were caused by the indifference of Prussia to the general in- 
terests of Germany, and the utter lack of the commonest poli- 
tical wisdom in Francis II. of Austria and his ministers. 
The war with France was wantonly undertaken, in the first 
place; it was then continued with stupid obstinacy after two 
offers of peace. But except the loss of the left bank of the 



How many priestly States were abolished? To what did the division give 
rise? How was the matter arranged? Chiefly by whose influence? When 
was the decree issued? What free cities were left? What did Prussia re- 
ceive? How was Baden increased? Bavaria? The other States? What rulers 
were made Electors? What occasioned these events? 



504 FEEXCH INVASION OF HANNOVER. [l803. 

Ehlne, with more than three millions of German inhabitants, 
Germany, though humiliated, was not yet seriously damaged. 
The complete overthrow of priestly rule , the extinction of a 
multitude of petty States, and the abolition of the special privi- 
leges of nearly a thousand "Imperial" noble families, was an 
immense gain to the whole country. The influence which Bona- 
parte exercised in the partition of 1803, though made solely 
with a view to the political interests of France, produced some 
very beneficial changes in Germany. In regard to religion, 
the Chief Electors were now equally divided, 5 being Catholic 
and 5 Protestant ; while the Diet of Princes, instead of having 
a Catholic majority of 12, as heretofore, acquired a Protestant 
majority of 22. 

France was now the ruling power on the Continent of 
Europe. Prussia preserved a timid neutrality, Austria was 
powerless, the new Republics in Holland, Switzerland and Italy 
were wholly subjected to French influence, Spain, Denmark 
and Russia were friendly, and even England, after the over- 
throw of Pitt's ministry, was persuaded to make peace with 
Bonaparte in 1802. The same year, the latter had himself 
declared First Consul for life, and became absolute master of 
the destinies of France. A new quarrel with England soon 
broke out, and this gave him a pretext for invading Hannover. 
In May, 1803, General Mortier marched from Holland with 
only 12,000 men, while Hannover, alone, had an excellent 
army of 15,000. But the Council of Nobles, who governed in 
the name of George III. of England, gave orders that "the 
troops should not be allowed to fire, and might only use the 
bayonet moderately , in extreme necessity !" Of course no battle 
was fought; the country was overrun by the French in a few 
days, and plundered to the amount of 26,000,000 thalers. 
Prussia and the other German States quietly looked on, and 
— did nothing. 



How was Germany damaged? What was a great gain? What influence 
did Bonaparte exercise? How were the Protestants and Catholics now divided? 
V/hat was the situation of the European Nations ? "What did Bonaparte do 
in 1802? What new quarrel hroke out? When, and by whom, was Hannover 
invaded? How did the Council of Nobles act? What was the fate of the 
country? 



1805.] THE THIKD COALITION. 505 

In March, 1804, tlie First Consul sent a force across the 
Rhine into Baden, seized the Duke d'Enghien, a fugitive Bour- 
bon Prince, carried him into France and there had him shot. 
This outrage provoked a general cry of indignation throughout 
Europe. Two months afterwards, on the 18th of May, Bona- 
parte assumed the title of Napoleon, Emperor of the French: 
the Italian RepubHcs were changed into a Kingdom of Italy, 
and that period of arrogant and selfish personal government 
commenced which brought monarchs and nations to his feet, 
and finally made him a fugitive and a prisoner. On the 11th 
of August, 1804, Francis II. imitated him, by taking the title 
of "Emperor of Austria," in order to preserve his existing 
rank, whatever changes might afterwards come. 

England, Austria and Russia were now more than ever 
determined to cripple the increasing power of Napoleon. Much 
time was spent in endeavoring to persuade Prussia to join the 
movement, but Frederick William III. not only refused, but 
sent an army to prevent the Russian troops from crossing Prus- 
sian territory, on their way to join the Austrians. By the 
summer of 1805, the Thied Coalition, composed of the three 
powers already named and Sweden, was formed, and a plan 
adopted for bringing nearly 400,000 soldiers into the field 
against France. Although the secret had been well kept, it 
was revealed before the Coalition was quite prepared ; and 
Napoleon was ready for the emergency. He had collected an 
army of 200,000 men at Boulogne for the invasion of Eng- 
land : giving up the latter design , he marched rapidly into 
Southern Germany , procured the alliance of Baden, Wiirtem- 
berg and Bavaria, with 40,000 more troops, and thus gained 
the first advantage before the Russian and Austrian armies 
had united. 

The fortress of Ulm, held by the Austrian General Mack, 
with 25,000 men, surrendered on the 17th of October. The 
French pressed forwards, overcame the opposition of a portion 



What did Bonaparte perpetrate, and when? What did he next do? What 
changes followed? How did Francis II. imitate him, and why? What three 
Powers united against Napoleon? What was the course of Prussia? What 
was formed, and what plan adopted? Describe Napo*leon'3 movements. What 
fortress surrendered? 



506 BATTLE OF AUSTEELITZ. [lS05. 

of the allied armies along the Danuhe, and on the 13th of No- 
vember entered Vienna. Francis II. and his family had fled 
to Presburg: the Archduke Karl, hastening from Italy, was 
in Styria with a small force, and a combined Russian and 
Austrian army of nearly 100,000 men was in Moravia. Prus- 
sia threatened to join the Coalition, because the neutrality of 
her territory had been violated by Bernadotte, in marching 
from Hannover to join Napoleon : the allies, although surprised 
and disgracefully defeated, were far from appreciating the 
courage and skill of their enemy, and still believed they could 
overcome him. Napoleon pretended to avoid a battle and 
thereby drew them on to meet him in the field: on the 2d of 
December at Austerlitz , the " Battle of the Three Emperors ," 
(as the Germans call it) occurred, and by the close of that day 
the allies had lost 15,000 killed and wounded, 20,000 pris- 
oners and 200 cannon. 

Two days after the battle Francis II. came personally to 
Napoleon and begged for an armistice, which was granted. 
The latter took up his quarters in the Palace of the Haps- 
burgs, at Schonbrunn, as a conqueror, and waited for the con- 
clusion of a treaty of peace, which was signed at Presburg on 
the 26th of December. Austria was forced to give up Venice 
to France, Tyrol to Bavaria, and some smaller territory to Ba- 
den and Wiirtemberg; to accept the policy of France in Italy, 
Holland and Switzerland, and to recognize Bavaria and Wiir- 
temberg as independent kingdoms of Napoleon's creation. AH 
that she received in return was the archbishopric of Salzburg. 
She also agreed to pay 100 millions of francs to France, and 
to permit the formation of a new Confederation of the smaller 
German States, which should be placed under the protector- 
ship of Napoleon. The latter lost no time in carrying out his 
plan: by July, 1806, the Bheinhund (Union of the Rhine) was 
entered into by 17 States, which formed, in combination, a 
third power, independent of either Austria or Prussia. 



When did the French reach Vienna? What was the state of affairs in 
Austria? What did i'russia threaten? Why? What was the delusion of the 
allies? Describe the battle of Austerlitz. What interview followed? When 
and where was peace signed? What was Austria forced to yield? What 
further did she agree to? When, and by whom, was the Rhine-Bund formed? 



1806.] 



END OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 



507 



/ Immediately afterwards, on the 6th of August, 1806, 

) Francis IL laid down his title of ^'Emperor of the Holy Roman 
) Empire of the German Nation," and the political corpse, long 




MEETING OF NAPOLEON AND FEANC18 II. 



since dead, was finally buried. Just a thousand years had 
elapsed since the time of Charlemagne ; the power and influence 
of the Empire had reached their culmination under the Ilohen- 



What did Francis II. do afterwards? 



508 napoleon's personal policy. [i80G. 

staufens, but even then the smaller rulers were undermining 
its foundations. It existed for a few centuries longer as a 
system which was one-fourth fact and three-fourths tradition: 
during the Thirty Years' War it perished, and the Hapsburgs, 
after that, only wore the ornaments and trappings it left be- 
hind. The German people were never further from being a 
nation than at the commencement of this century; but the 
most of them still clung to the superstition of an Empire, until 
the compulsory act of Francis 11. showed them, at last, that 
there was none. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

GERMANY UNDER NAPOLEON. 

(1806—1814.) 

Napoleon's Personal Policy. — The "Rhine-Bund". — French Tyranny.— Prussia 
Declares War. — Battles of Jena and Auerstadt.— Napoleon in Berlin. — 
Prussia and Russia Allied. — Battle of Eriedland. — Interviews of the 
Sovereigns. — Losses of Prussia.— Kingdom of Westphalia. — Frederick Wil- 
liam III.'s Weakness. — Congress at Erfurt. — Patriotic Movements.— Revolt 
of the Tyrolese. — Napoleon Marchers on Vienna. — Schill's Movement in 
Prussia. — Battles of Aspern and Wagram. — The Peace of Vienna. — Fate of 
Andreas Hofer. — The Duke of Brunswick's Attempt. — Napoleon's Rule in 
Germany. — Secret Resistance in Prussia. — War with Russia. — The March 
to Moscow. — The Retreat. — York's Measures. — Rising of Prussia. — Division 
of Germany. — Battle of Ltitzen. — Napoleon in Dresden.-^The Armistice. — 
Austria Joins the Allies. — Victories of Bliicher and Biilow. — Napoleon's 
Hesitation. — The Battle of Leipzig. — Napoleon's Retreat from Germany. — 
Cowardice of the Allied Monarchs. — Blucher Crosses the Rhine. 

After the peace of Presburg there was nothing to pre- 
vent Napoleon from carrying out his plan of dividing the 
greater part of Europe among the members of his own family, 
and the Marshals of his armies. He gave the kingdom of 
Naples to his brother Joseph; appointed his step-son Eugene 
Beauharnais Viceroy of Italy, and married him to the daughter 



How long had the Empire lasted? When was its greatest power? When 
did it actuaUy perish? What of the German people? 
What did Napoleon do, after the peace of Presburg? 



1806.] THE '^EHINE-BUND". 509 

of Maximilian I. (formerly Elector, now King) of Bavaria; made 
a Kingdom of Holland, and gave it to his brother Louis ; gave 
the Duchy of Jiilich , Cleves and Berg to Murat , and married 
Stephanie Beauharnais, the niece of the Empress Josephine, 
to the son of the Grand-Duke of Baden. There was no longer 
any thought of disputing his will, in any of the smaller Ger- 
man States: the princes were as submissive as he could have 
desired, and the people had been too long powerless to dream 
of resistance. 

The "Rhine-Bund," therefore, was constructed just as 
France desired. Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darm- 
stadt and Nassau united with 12 small principalities — the 
whole embracing a population of 13 millions — in a Confedera- 
tion, which accepted Napoleon as Protector, and agreed to 
maintain an army of 63,000 men, at the disposal of France. 
This arrangement divided the German Empire into three parts, 
one of which (Austria) had just been conquered, while another 
(Prussia) had lost all its former prestige by its weak and cow- 
ardly policy. Napoleon was now the recognized master of 
the third portion, the action of which was regulated by a Diet 
held at Frankfort. In order to make the Union simpler and 
more manageable, all the independent countships and baronies 
within its limits were abolished, and the 17 States were thus 
increased by an aggregate territory of about 12,000 square 
miles. Bavaria took possession, without more ado, of the free 
cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg. 

Prussia, by this time, had agreed with Napoleon to give 
up Anspach and Bayreuth to Bavaria, and receive Hannover 
instead. This provoked the enmity of England, the only re- 
maining nation which was friendly to Prussia. The French armies 
were still quartered in Southern Germany, violating at will 
not only the laws of the land, but the laws of nations. A 
bookseller named Palm, in Nuremberg, who had in his posses- 
sion some pamphlets opposing Napoleon's schemes, was seized 



How did he provide for his family? What was the attitude of Germany? 
How was the Rhine-Bund constructed? What States united? How were they 
Subordinate to France? How was Germany divided? How was the new third 
part governed? How were the 17 States increased? What did Bavaria do? 
What was Prussia's course? How did the French troops act? 



510 



FKENCH TYEAXNY. 



[iSOG. 



by order of the latter, tried by court-martial and shot. This 
brutal and despotic act was not resented by the German princes, 
but it aroused the slumbering spirit of the people. The Prus- 




PRUSSIAN SOLDIERS EN 1S06. 



sians, especially, began to grow very impatient of their pusil- 
lanimous government; but Frederick William III. did notliing, 
until in August, 1806, he discovered that Napoleon was 
trying to purchase peace with England and Russia by offering 



Who was shot, and why? What effect had this outrage? 



1806.1 BATTLE OF JENA. 511 

Hannover to the former and Prussian Poland to the latter. 
Then he decided for war, at the very time when he was com- 
pelled to meet the victorious power of France alone ! 

Napoleon, as usual, was on the march before his enemy 
was even properly organized. He was already in Franconia, 
and in a few days stood at the head of an army of 200,000 
men, part of whom were furnished by the Rhine-Bund. Prus- 
sia, assisted only by Saxony and Weimar, had 150,000, com- 
manded by Prince Hohenlohe and the Duke of Brunswick, 
who hardly reached the bases of the Thiiringian Mountains 
when they were met by the French and hurled back. On the 
table-land near Jena and Auerstadt a double battle was fought 
on the 14th of October, 1806. In the first (Jena) Napoleon 
simply crushed and scattered to the winds the army of Prince 
Hohenlohe ; in the second (Auerstadt) Marshal Davoust , after 
some heavy fighting, defeated the Duke of Brunswick, who was 
mortally wounded. Then followed a season of panic and 
cowardice which now seems incredible: the French overwhelmed 
Prussia, and almost every defence fell without resistance as 
they approached. The strong fortress of Erfurt, with 10,000 
men, surrendered the day after the battle of Jena; the still 
stronger fortress-city of Magdeburg, with 24,000 men, opened 
its gates before a gun was fired! Spandau capitulated as soon 
as asked, on the 24th of October, and Davoust entered Berlin 
the same day. Only General Bliicher, more than 60 years old, 
cut his way through the French with 10,000 men, and for a 
time gallantly held them at bay in Liibeck ; and the young of- 
ficers, Gneisenau and Schill, kept the fortress of Colberg, on 
the Baltic, where they were steadily besieged until the war 
was over. 

When Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph, on the 27th 
of November, he found nearly the whole population completely 
cowed, and ready to acknowledge his authority : seven Ministers 
of the Prussian Government took the oath of allegiance to 



"When did Frederick William III. act, and for what reason? Where was 
Napoleon, and what force did he raise? What was the Prussian army? Its 
commanders? Where did they meet the French? What double battle took 
place, and when? How did the first result? The second? What followed? 
What fo;i;re8ses surrendered, and how? When was Berlin taken? Who made 
the ouly resistance? 



512 



NAPOLEON IN BEELIN. 



[lS06. 



him, and agreed, at once, to give up all of the kingdom west 
of the Elbe for the sake )f peace! Frederick William III., 
who had fled to Konigsberg, refused to confirm their action, 
and entered into an alliance with Alexander I. of Russia, to 




NAPOLEON AT THE TOMB OF FSEDEEICK THE GEEAT. 

continue the war. Napoleon, meanwhile, had made peace with 
Saxony, which, after paying heavy contributions and joining 
the Rhine-Bund, was raised by him to the rank of a kingdom. 
At the same time he encouraged a revolt in Prussian Poland, 
got possession of Silesia , and kept Austria neutral by skilful 
diplomacy. England had the power, by prompt and energetic 
action, of changing the face of affairs, but her government did 
nothing. 



How was Napoleon received in Berlin? What did Frederick William III. 
do? What happened in Saxony? What were Napoleon's measures? What 
was England's position? 



1807.] THE PEACE OF TILSIT. 513 

Pressing eastward during the winter, tlie French army, 
140,000 strong, met the Russians and Prussians on the 8th 
of February, 1807, in the murderous battle of Eylau, after 
which, because its result was undecided. Napoleon concluded a 
truce of several months. Frederick William appointed a new 
Ministry, with the fearless and patriotic statesmen. Harden- 
berg and Stein, who formed a fresh alliance with Russia, which 
was soon joined by England and Sweden. Nevertheless, it 
was almost impossible to reinforce the Prussian army, and 
Alexander I. made no great exertions to increase the Russian, 
while Napoleon, with all Prussia in his rear, was constantly 
receiving fresh troops. Early in June he resumed hostilities, 
and on the 14th, with a much superior force, so completely 
defeated the Allies in the battle of Fried! and, that they were 
driven over the river Memel into Russian territory. 

The Russians immediately concluded an armistice: Napo- 
leon had an interview with Alexander I. on a raft in the river 
Memel, and acquired such an immediate influence over the en- 
thusiastic, fantastic nature of the latter, that he became a 
friend and practically an ally. The next day, there was another 
interview, at which Frederick William III. was also present: 
the Queen, Louise of Mecklenburg, a woman of noble and 
heroic character, whom Napoleon had vilely slandered, was 
persuaded to accompany him, but only subjected herself to 
new humiliation. (She died in 1810, during Germany's deepest 
degradation, but her son, William L, became German Em- 
peror in 1871.) The Peace of Tilsit was declared on the 9th 
of July, 1807, according to Napoleon's single will. Hardenberg 
had been dismissed from the Prussian Ministry, and Talleyrand 
gave his successor a completed document, to be signed with- 
out discussion. 

Prussia lost very nearly the half of her territory: her 
population was diminished from 9,743,000 to 4,938,000. A 
new "Grand-Duchy of Warsaw" was formed by Napoleon out 



When was the battle of Eylau fought? "What followed it? "What new 
Ministry was appointed? What advantages had Napoleon? What happened 
in June, 1807? What interview took place? With what result? Who were 
present at the second interview? When did Queen Louise die? Who is her 
son? When was the peace of Tilsit concluded? How was Prussia reduced? 
What State was formed by Napoleon ? 



514 HUMILIATION OF PKUSSIA. [18O8. 

of her Polish acquisitions. The contributions which had been 
levied and which Prussia was still forced to pay amounted to 
a total sum of 300 million thalers, and she was obliged to 
maintain a French army in her diminished territory until the 
last farthing should be paid over. Russia, on the other hand, 
lost nothing, but received a part of Polish Prussia. A new 
Kingdom of Westphalia was formed out of Brunswick, and 
parts of Prussia and Hannover, and Napoleon's brother, Jerome, 
was made king. The latter, whose wife was an American lady, 
Miss Patterson of Baltimore, was compelled to renounce her, 
and marry the daughter of the new king of W iirtemberg , al- 
though, as a Catholic, he could not do this without a special 
dispensation from the Pope, and Pius VII. refused to give one. 
Thus he became a bigamist, according to the laws of the 
Roman Church. Jerome was a weak and licentious individual, 
and made himself heartily hated by his two millions of Ger- 
man subjects during his six years' rule in Cassel. 

Frederick William HI. was at last stung by his misfor- 
tunes into the adoption of another and manlier policy. He 
called Stein to the head of his Ministry, and allowed the lat- 
ter to introduce, reforms for the purpose of assisting, strengthen- 
ing and developing the character of the people. But 150,000 
French troops still fed like locusts upon the substance of Prus- 
sia, and there was an immense amount of poverty and suffer- 
ing. The French commanders plundered so outrageously and 
acted with such shameless brutality, that even the slow Ger- 
man nature became heated with a hate so intense that it is 
not yet wholly extinguished. But this was not the end of the 
degradation. Napoleon , at the climax of his power , having 
(without exaggeration) the whole Continent of Europe under 
his feet, demanded that Prussia should join the Rhine-Bund, 
reduce her standing army to 42,000 men, and, in case of neces- 
sity, furnish -France with troops against Austria. The tem- 
porary courage of the king dissolved : he signed a treaty on 



What further losses did Prussia endure? How was Russia treated? What 
new kingdom was formed? Who became king? What was he compelled by 
Napoleon to do? What was his character? How did Frederick William III. 
now act? What French force was kept in Prussia? How did the Commanders 
t^cat the people? Wliat new demands did Napoleon make? 



1808.] 



CONGBESS AT EKFURT. 



515 



the 8th of September, 1808, without the knowledge of Stein, 
granting nearly everything Napoleon claimed, — thus compell- 
ing the patriotic statesman to resign, and making what was 
left of Prussia tributary to the designs of France. 

At the same time Napoleon held a so-called Congress at 
Erfurt, at which all the German rulers (except Austria) were 




THE MINISTER VON STEIN. 



present, but the decisions were made by himself, with the con- 
nivance of Alexander I. of Russia. The latter received Finn- 
land and the Danubian Principalities: Napoleon simply car- 
ried out his own personal policy. He made his brother Joseph 
king of Spain, gave Naples to his brother-in-law , Murat , and 
soon afterwards annexed the States of the Church, in Italy, 



How did the aing meet them ? What Congress was held, and of what na- 
ture? What did Alexander I. receive? 



516 BEVOLT OF THE TYKOLESE. [l809. 

to France, abolishing the temporal sovereignty of the Pope. 
Every one of the smaller German States had already joined 
the Rhine-Bund, and the Diet by which they were governed 
abjectly obeyed his will. Princes, nobles, officials, and authors 
vied with each other in doing homage to him. Even the battles 
of Jena and Friedland were celebrated by popular festivals in 
the capitals of the other States : the people of Southern Ger- 
many, especially, rejoiced over the shame and suffering of their 
brethren in the North. Ninety German authors dedicated 
books to Napoleon, and the newspapers became contemptible 
in their servile praises of his rule. 

Austria, always energetic at the wrong time and weak 
when energy was necessary, prepared for war, relying on the 
help of Prussia and possibly of Russia. Napoleon had been 
called to Spain, where a part of the people, supported by 
Wellington, with an English force , in Portugal , was making 
a gallant resistance to the French rule. A few patriotic and 
courageous men, all over Germany, began to consult together 
concerning the best means for the liberation of the country. 
The Prussian Ex-minister, Baron Stein, the philosopher Fichte, 
the statesman and poet Arndt, the Generals Gneisenau and 
Scharnhorst, the historian Niebuhr, and also the Austrian 
minister. Count Stadion, used every effort to increase and ex- 
tend this movement; but there was no German prince, except 
the young Duke of Brunswick, ready or willing to act. 

The Tyrolese, who are still the most Austrian of Austrians, 
and the most Catholic of Catholics, organized a revolt against 
the French-Bavarian rule, early in 1809. This was the first 
purely popular movement in Germany, which had occurred 
since the revolt of the Austrian peasants against Ferdinand II. 
nearly two hundred years before. The Tyrolese leaders were 
Andreas Hofer, a hunter named Speckbacher and a monk 
named Haspinger ; their troops were peasants and mountaineers. 



What were Napoleon's decrees? What was his influence in Germany? 
What events were celebrated? What of the authors and newspapers? What 
was Austria doing? Why was Napoleon called to Spain? What movement 
began in Germany? By whom encouraged? How did the princes regard it? 
What happened in Tyrol, and when? What was it? Who were the loaders 
and troops? 



518 NAPOLEON AGAIN VICTORIOUS. [l809. 

The plot was so well organized that the Alps were speedily 
cleared of tlie enemy, and on the 13th of April, Hofer captured 
Innsbruck, which he held for Austria. When the French and 
Bavarian troops entered the mountain-passes, tliey were picked 
off by skilful riflemen or crushed by rocks and trees rolled 
down upon them. The daring of the Tyrolese produced a 
stirring effect throughout Austria : for ths first time, the people 
came forward as volunteers, to be enrolled in the army, and 
the Archduke Karl, in a short time, had a force of 300,000 
men at liis disposal. 

Napoleon returned from Spain at the first news of the im- 
pending war. As the Rhine-Bund did not dream of disobe- 
dience, as Prussia was crippled, and the sentimental friendship 
of Alexander I. had not yet grown cold, he raised an army of 
180,000 men and entered Bavaria by the 9th of April. The 
Archduke was not prepared: his large force had been divided 
and stationed according to a plan which might have been very 
successful, if Napoleon had been willing to respect it. He lost 
three battles in succession, the last, at Eckmiihl on the 22d 
of April, obliging him to give up Ratisbon and retreat into 
Bohemia. The second Austrian army , which had been vic- 
torious over the Viceroy Eugene , in Italy , was instantly re- 
called, but it was too late; there were only 30,000 men on 
the southern bank of the Danube, between the French and 
Vienna. 

The movement in Tyrol was imitated in Prussia by Major 
Schill, one of the defenders of Colberg in 1807. His heroism 
had given him great popularity, and he was untiring in his 
efforts to incite the people to revolt. The secret association 
of patriotic men, already referred to, which was called the 
Tiigendhuncl^ or "League of Virtue," encouraged him so fiir as 
it was able ; and when he entered Berlin at the head of four 
squadrons of hussars, immediately after the news of Hofer's 
success, he was received with such enthusiasm that he imagined 



What was Hofer's success ? How were Hie French and Bavarians over- 
come ? What effect followed, in Austria? What were >iapoleon'8 first move- 
ments? What had the Archduke done? What hattles f(dlowed? How was 
Austria situated? Who imitated the Tyrolese? By what League was he en- 
couraged f 



1309. J 



SCHILL S PATBIOTISM. 



519 



the moment had come for arousing Prussia. Marching out of 
the city, as if for the usual cavalry exercise, lie addressed his 




BCHILL'S ENTHANCB into BERLIN. 



troops in a fiery speech, revealed to them his plans and in- 
spired them with equal confidence. With his little band he 



How was SchiU received in Berlin? What did he then do? 

23 



520 BATTLES OF ASPEUX AND WAGEAM. [l809. 

took Halle, besieged Beruburg, was victorious in a number of 
small battles against the increasing forces of the French, but 
at the end of a month was compelled to retreat to Stralsund. 
The city was stormed, and he fell in resisting the assault; the 
French captured and shot twelve of his officers. The fame of 
his exploits helped to fire tlie German heart; the courage of 
the people returned, and they began to grow restless and in- 
dignant under their shame. 

By the 13th of May, Napoleon had entered Vienna and 
taken up his quarters in the palace of Schonbrunn. The 
Archduke Karl was at the same time rapidly approaching 
with an army of 75,000 men, and Napoleon, who had 90,000, 
hastened to throw a bridge across the Danube, below the city, 
in order to meet him before he could be reinforced. On the 
21st, however, the Archduke began the attack before the 
whole French army had crossed, and the desperate battle of 
Aspern followed. After two days of bloody fighting, the 
French fell back upon the island of Lobau , and their bridge 
was destroyed. This was Napoleon's first defeat in Germany, 
but it was dearly purchased: the loss on each side was about 
24,000. Napoleon issued flaming bulletins of victory which 
deceived the German people for a time, meanwhile ordering new 
troops to be forwarded with all possible haste. He deceived 
the Archduke by a heavy cannonade, rapidly constructed six 
bridges further down the river, crossed with his whole army, 
and on the 6th of July fought the battle of Wagram , which 
ended with the defeat and retreat of the Austrians. 

An armistice followed, and the war was concluded on the 
14th of October by the Peace of Vienna. Francis II. was com- 
pelled to give up Salzburg and some adjoining territory to 
Bavaria ; Galicia to Russia and the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw ; 
and Carniola, Croatia and Dalmatia with Trieste to the king- 
dom of Italy, — a total loss of 3,500,000 of population. He 
further agreed to pay a contribution of 85 millions of francs 



What success had he, and for how long? What was his fate? How were 
the Germans affected? When did Napoleon reach Vienna? Where was the 
Archduke, and how did Napoleon meet him? Describe the battle of Aspern. 
What were the losses? What deception did Napoleon practise? What battle 
followed? When did the war end? What territory did Austria lose? 



1809.] THE DUKE OF BRUNSWICk's ATTEMPT. 521 

to France, and was persuaded, shortly afterwards, to give the 
hand of his daughter, Maria Louisa, to Napoleon, who had 
meanwhile divorced himself from the Empress Josephine. The 
Tyrolese, who had been encouraged by promises of help from 
Vienna, refused to believe that they were betrayed and given 
up. Hofer continued his struggle with success after the con- 
clusion of peace, until near the close of the year, when the 
French and Bavarians returned in force, and the movement 
was crushed. He hid for two months among the mountains, 
then was betrayed by a monk, captured, and carried in chains 
to Mantua. Here he was tried by a French court-martial and 
shot on the 20th of February, 1810. Francis 11. might have 
saved his life, but he made no attempt to do it. Thus, in 
North and South, Schill and Hofer perished, unsustained by 
their kings; yet their deeds remained, as an inspiration to the 
whole German people. 

During the summer of 1809, the Duke of Brunswick, whose 
land Napoleon had added to Jerome's kingdom of Westphalia, 
made a daring attempt to drive the French from Northern 
Germany. He had joined a small Austrian army, sent to 
operate in Saxony, and when it was recalled after the battle of 
Eckmiihl, he made a desperate effort to reconquer Brunswick 
with a force of only 2,000 volunteers. The latter dressed in 
black, and wore a skull and cross-bones on their caps. The 
Duke took Halberstadt, reached Brunswick, then cut his way 
through the German-French forces closing in upon him , and 
came to the shore of the North Sea, where, it was expected, 
an English army would land. He and his troops escaped in 
small vessels: the English, 40,000 strong, landed on the island 
of Walcheren (on the coast of Belgium) , where they lay idle 
until driven home by sickness 

For three years after the peace of Vienna, Napoleon was 
all-powerful in Germany. He was married to Maria Louisa 
on the 2d of April, 1810; his son, the King of Rome, was 



What loss in money? What else followed? How were the Tyrolese treated ? 
When was the movement crushed? Eelate Hofer's fate. Who refused to save 
him? Who else made an attempt, when, and where? What force had he? 
How were tliey dressed ? What did he accomplish ? What was done by the 
English? 



522 DEGEADATION Or GERMANY. [i3iO. 

born the following March, and Austria, where Metternich was 
now Minister instead of Count Stadion, followed the policy of 
France. All Germany accepted the "Continental Blockade," 
which cut off its commerce with England: the standing armies 
of Austria and Prussia were reduced to one -fourth of their 
ordinary strength; the king of Prussia, who had lived for two 
years in Konigsberg, was ordered to return to Berlin, and the 
French ministers at all the smaller Courts became the prac- 
tical rulers of the States. In 1810, the kingdom of Holland 
was taken from Louis Bonaparte and annexed to the French 
Empire; then Northern Germany, with Bremen, Hamburg and 
Liibeck, was annexed in like manner, and the same fate was 
evidently intended for the States of the Bhine-Bund, if the 
despotic selfishness of Napoleon had not put an end to his 
marvellous success. The king of Prussia was next compelled 
to suppress the "League of Virtue": Germany was filled with 
.French spies (many of them native Germans), and every ex- 
pression of patriotic sentiment was reported as treason to 
France. 

Li the territory of the Bhine-Bund, there was, however, 
very little real patriotism among the people: in Austria the 
latter were still kept down by the Jesuitic rule of the Haps- 
burgs: only in the smaller Saxon Duchies, and in Prussia, the 
idea of resistance was fostered, though in spite of Frederick 
William HI. Indeed, the temporary removal of the king was 
for awhile secretly advocated. Hardenberg and Scharnhorst 
did their utmost to prepare the people for the struggle which 
they knew would come: the former introduced new laws, based 
on the principle of tlie equality of all citizens before the law, 
their equal right to development, protection and official ser- 
vice. Scharnhorst, the son of a peasant, trained the people 
for military duty, in defiance of France: he kept the number 
of soldiers at 42,000, in accordance with the treat}^ but as 
fast as they were well- drilled, he sent them home and put 



What was Napoleon*s position, for three years longer? Ilow was his po- 
licy enforced throughout Germany? What annexations \\ere made in 1810? 
With what was the Rhine-Bund threatened? What was tlie king of Prussia 
forced to do? What was the situation of the people? Where was the idea 
of resistance fostered? What was secretly advocated? What new laws did 
Hardenberg introduce? 



binder 

NAPOLEON 

1812. M 



1^ 





Tibn: 







CoUterg 





-^^ 













,^ rag lie 

]B o l^) e TTL i 



-Olmutzl 



■* ^ o 




^Jlni 



JjcoZ 



V-iJJ^ 



Jl, 




/ \ ^,_ Urixen J- ^ 







"-_EZ<WCTjyTt7^ 





1?^ 






JTovto 
\ienottp 



iGcrana 



Fei'T-ara, ^^k 
/ Jta.vE7m.aJ 



Vllizr^a ^ «Pa-^"^ 





524 THE MOVEMENT AGAINST EUSSIA. [lS12. 

* 

fresh recruits in their place. In this manner he gradually- 
prepared 150,000 men for the army* 

Alexander I. of Russia had by this time lost his sen- 
timental friendship for Napoleon. The seizure by the latter of 
the territory of the Duke of Oldenburg, who was his near re- 
lation, greatly offended him: he grew tired of submitting to 
the Continental Blockade, and in 1811 adopted commercial 
laws which amounted to its abandonment. Then Napoleon 
showed his own overwhelming arrogance; and his course once 
more illustrated the abject condition of Germany Every 
ruler saw that a great war was coming, and had nearly a 
year's time for decision; but all submitted! Early in 1812 
the colossal plan was put into action : Prussia agreed to furnish 
20,000 soldiers, Austria 30^000, and the Rhine-Bund, which 
comprised the rest of Germany, was called upon for 150,000. 
France furnished more than 300,000, and this enormous 
military force was set in motion against Russia, which was at 
the time unable to raise half that number of troops. In May 
Napoleon and Maria Louisa held a grand Court in Dresden, 
which a crowd of reigning princes attended, and where even 
Francis I. and Frederick William III. were treated rather as 
vassals than as equals. This was the climax of Napoleon's 
success. Regardless of distance, climate, lack of supplies and 
all the other impediments to his will, he pushed forward with 
an army greater than Europe had seen since the days of Attila, 
but from which only one man, horse and cannon out of every 
ten returned. 

After holding a grand review on the battle-field of Fried - 
land, he crossed the Niemen and entered Russia on the 24th 
of June, met the Russians in battle at Smolensk on the 16th 
and 17th of August, and after great losses continued his 
march towards Moscow through a country which had been 
purposely laid waste, and where great numbers of his soldiers 



How did Scharnhorst keep up the military strength? IIow had Alexan. 
der I. clianged? What offended him? What course did he adopt, and when? 
How did the German rulers act ? When and how was the war organized ? 
WJiat did France furnish? What was Russia's strength? What Court was 
licld by Napoleon? What was his undertaking, and what came of it? When 
did he enter Russia? Where was the first battle? 



1812.J 



BOEODINO AND MOSCO:f\^. 



525 



perished from hunger and fatigue. On the 7 th of September, 
the Russian army of 120,000 men met him on the field of 
Borodino, where occurred the most desperate battle of all his 
wars. At the close of the fight 80,000 dead and wounded 




NAPOLEON LEAVINp MOSCOW. 



(about an equal number on each side) lay upon the plain. The 
Russians retreated, repulsed but not conquered, and on the 
14th of September Napoleon entered Moscow. The city was 
deserted by its inhabitants: all goods and treasures which 
could be speedil^T^ removed had been taken away, and the next 



What of the further march? Describe the battle of Borodino. 
Moscow reached? 



When v.as 



526 THE RETKEAT FROM RUSSIA. [lS12. 

evening flames broke out in a number of places. The con- 
flagration spread so that within a week four-fifths of the city 
were destroyed: Napoleon was forced to leave the Kremlin 
and escape through burning streets ; and thus the French army 
was left without winter-quarters and provisions. 

After offering terms of peace in vain, and losing a month 
of precious time in waiting, nothing was left for Napoleon 
but to commence his disastrous retreat. Cut off from the 
warmer southern route by the Russians on the 24th of October, 
his army, diminishing day by day, endured all the horrors of 
the Northern winter, and lost so many in the fearful passage 
of the Beresina and from the constant attacks of the Cossacks, 
that not more than 30,000 men, famished, frozen and mostly 
without arms, crossed the Prussian frontier about the middle 
of December. After reaching Wilna, Napoleon had hurried on 
alone, in advance : his passage through Germany was like a 
flight, and he was safe in Paris before the terrible failure of 
his campaign was generally known throughout Europe. 

When Frederick William III. agreed to furnish 20,000 
troops to France, his best generals — Bliicher, Scharnhorst, 
Gneisenau — and 300 officers resigned. The command of the 
Prussian contingent was given to General York, who was sent 
to l\iga during the march to Moscow, and escaped the horrors 
of the retreat. When the fate of the campaign was decided, 
he left the French with his remaining 17,000 Prussian soldiers, 
concluded a ti'eaty of neutrality with the Russian general 
Diebitsch, called an assembly of the people together in Konigs- 
berg, and boldly ordered that all men capable of bearing 
arms should be mustered into the army. Frederick William, 
in Berlin, disavowed this ac^, but the Prussian people were 
ready for it. The excitement became so great, that the men 
who had influence with the king succeeded in having his Court 
removed to Breslau, where an alliance was entered into with 
Alexander L, and on the 17th of March, 1813, an address 



"What happened? Wliat was Napoleon forced to do? How long did ho 
wait? What was left to liim ? Describe the retreat. What did he do , after 
reaching Wilna? What had the best Prussian officers done? Where was 
the Prussian contingent sent? What did General York do, after the retreat? 
How did the king support him? What removal was forced upon the king? 



I SI 3. J 



FUEDERICK WILLIAM III. FOECED TO ACT. 



527 



was issued in the king's name, calling upon the people to 
choose between victory or ruin. The measures which York 




THE BETBEAT FBOM BUSSIA. 



had adopted were proclaimed for all Prussia, and the patriotic 
schemes of Stein and Hardenberg, so long thwarted by the 
king's weakness, were thus suddenly carried into action. 

The effect was astonishing, when we consider how little 



What address was issued, and when ? What measures were carried out? 



528 THE UPKISING OF THE PEOPLE. [l813. 

real liberty the people had enjoyed. But they had been 
educated in patriotic sentiments by another power than the 
Government. For years, the works of the great German 
authors had become familiar to them: Klopstock taught them 
to be proud of their race and name; Schiller taught them 
resistance to oppression, Arndt and Korner gave them songs 
which stirred them more than the sound of drum and trumpet, 
and thousands of high-hearted young men mingled with them 
and inspired them with new courage and new hopes. Within 
live months Prussia had 270,000 soldiers under arms, part 
of whom were organized to repel the coming armies of 
Napoleon, while the remainder undertook the siege of the 
many Prussian fortresses which were still garrisoned by the 
French. All classes of the people took part in this uprising: 
the professors followed the students, the educated men stood 
side by side with the peasants, mothers gave their only sons, 
and the women sent all their gold and jewels to the treasury 
and wore ornaments of iron. The young poet, Theodor Korner, 
not only aroused the people with his fiery songs, but fought 
in the "free corps" of Liitzow, and finally gave his life for his 
country: the Turner^ or gymnasts, inspired by their teacher 
Jahn, went as a body into the ranks, and even many women 
disguised themselves and enlisted as soldiers. 

With the exception of Mecklenburg and Dessau, the States 
of the Khine-Bund still held to France: Saxony and Bavaria 
especially distinguished themselves by their abject fidelity to 
Napoleon. Austria remained neutral, and whatever influence 
she exercised was against Prussia. But Sweden, under the 
Crown Prince Bernadotte (Napoleon's former Marshal) joined 
the movement, with the condition of obtaining Norway in 
case of success. The operations were delayed by the slowness 
of the Russians, and the disagreement, or perhaps jealousy, of 
the various generals; and Napoleon made good use of the 
time to prepare himself for the coming struggle. Although 
France was already exliausted, he enforced a merciless con- 



"Who had educated and encouraged the people? What army was raised? 
How was it disposed? How did the people rise? What young poet assisted? 
Who else went into tlie ranks? What was the course of the other States? 
Of Austria? Of Sweden? How were the operations delayed? 



1813.] 



BATTLE OF LtJTZEN. 



529 



scrip tion, taking young boys and old men, until, with the 
German soldiers still at his disposal, he had a force of nearly 
500,000 men. 

The campaign opened well for Prussia. Hamburg and 
Llibeck were delivered from the French, and on the 5th of 
April the Viceroy Eugene was defeated at Mockern (near 







THE CONSCEIPTION OF 1S13. 

Leipzig) with heavy losses. The first great battle was fought 
at Liitzen, on the 2d of May, on the same field where 
Gustavus Adolphus fell in 1632. The Russians and Prussians, 
with 95,000 men, held Napoleon, with 120,000, at bay for a 
whole day, and then fell back in good order, after a defeat 
which encouraged instead of dispiriting the people. The 
greatest loss was the death of Scharnhorst. Shortly after- 
wards Napoleon occupied Dresden, and it became evident that 
Saxony would be the principal theatre of war. A second 



How did Napoleon raise an army? How did the campaign open? When 
and where was Eugene defeated? What was the first great battle? What 
was its result, and effect? Where did Napoleon establish himself? 



530 ALLIANCE OF AUSTEIA [l813. 

battle of two days took place on the 20tli and 21st of May, 
in which, although the French outnumbered the Germans and 
Russians two to one, they barely achieved a victory. The 
courage and patriotism of the people were now beginning to 
tell, especially as Napoleon's troops were mostly young, physi- 
cally weak, and inexperienced. In order to give them rest he 
offered an armistice on the 4th of June, an act which he after- 
wards declared to have been the greatest mistake of his life. 
It was prolonged until the 1 Oth of August, and gave the Ger- 
mans time both to rest and recruit, and to strengthen them- 
selves by an alliance with Austria. 

Francis II. judged that the time had come to recover what 
he had lost, especially as England formally joined Prussia and 
Russia on the 14th of June. A fortnight afterwards an agree- 
ment was entered into between the two latter powers and 
x^ustria, that peace should be ofifered to Napoleon provided he 
would give up Northern Germany, the Dalmatian provinces 
and the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw. He rejected the offer, and 
so insulted Metternich during an interview in Dresden, that 
the latter became his bitter enemy thenceforth. The end of 
all the negotiations was that Austria declared war on the 
12th of August, and both sides prepared at once for a final 
and desperate struggle. The Allies now had 800,000 men, 
divided into three armies, one under Schwarzenberg confront- 
ing the French centre in Saxony, one under Bliicher in Silesia, 
and a third in the North under Bernadotte. The last of these 
generals seemed reluctant to act against his former leader, 
and his participation was of little real service. Napoleon had 
550,000 men, less scattered than the Germans, and all under 
the government of his single will. He was still , therefore, a 
formidable foe. 

Just sixteen days after the armistice came to an end, the 
old Bliicher won a victory as splendid as many of Napoleon's. 
He met Marshal Macdonald on the banks of a stream called 



What second battle took place? How were the people encouraged? What 
followed? How long did the armistice last? What considerations influenced 
Francis II.? What agreement was made? How did Napoleon answer, and 
act? What was the end of it all? What forces were arrayed against Napo- 
leon? How did Bernadotte act? What force had Napoleon? 



1813.] 



GERMAN VICTOEIES. 



531 



the Katzbach, in Silesia, and defeated him with the loss of 
12,000 killed and wounded, 18,000 prisoners and 103 cannon. 
From the circumstance of his having cried out to his men: 
"Forwards! forwards!" in the crisis of the battle, Bliicher was 
thenceforth called "Marshal Forwards" by the soldiers. Five 
days before this the Prussian general Biilow was victorious 
over Oudinot at Grossbeeren, within ten miles of Berlin; and 




BATTLE OP THE KATZBAOH. 



four days afterwards the French general Vandamme, with 
40,000 men, was cut to pieces by the Austrians and Prussians, 
at Kulm on the southern frontier of Saxony. Thus, within a 
month, Napoleon lost one-fourth of his whole force, while the 
fresh hope and enthusiasm of the German people immediately 
supplied the losses on their side. It is true that Schwarzenberg 
had been severely repulsed in an attack on Dresden, on the 
27th of August, but this had been so speedily followed by 
Yandamme's defeat, that it produced no discouragement. 



Describe the battle of the Katzbach. What name was given 1o Blflchor, 
and why? What victory had occurred Taefore this? What afterwords? How 
were the positions changed? 



532 THE BATTLE OF LE^ZIG. [l813. 

The month of September opened with another Prussian 
victory. On the 6th, Biilow defeated Ney at Dennewitz, taking 
15,000 prisoners and 80 cannon. This change of fortune 
seems to have bewildered Napoleon: instead of his former 
promptness and rapidity, he spent a month in Dresden, alter- 
nately trying to entice Bliicher or Schwarzenberg to give 
battle. The latter two, meanwhile, were gradually drawing 
nearer to each other and to Bernadotte, and their final junc- 
tion was effected without any serious movement to prevent it 
on Napoleon's part. Bliicher's passage of the Elbe on the 
3d of October compelled him to leave Dresden with his army 
and take up a new position in Leipzig, where he arrived on 
the 13th. The Allies instantly closed in upon him: there was 
a fierce but indecisive cavalry fight on the 14th, the 15th 
was spent in preparations on both sides, and on the 16th the 
great battle began. 

Napoleon had about 190,000 men, the Allies 300,000: 
both were posted along lines many miles- in extent, stretching 
over the open plain, from the north and east around to the 
south of Leipzig. The first day's fight really comprised three 
distinct battles, two of which were won by the French and 
one by Bliicher. During the afternoon a terrific charge of 
cavalry under Murat broke the centre of the Allies, and Fred- 
erick William and Alexander L narrowly escaped capture: 
Schwarzenberg, at the head of a body of Cossacks and Aus- 
trian hussars, repulsed the charge, and night came without 
any positive result. Napoleon sent offers of peace, but they 
were not answered, and the Allies thereby gained a day for 
reinforcements. On the morning of the J 8th the battle was 
resumed : all day long the earth trembled under the discharge 
of more than a thousand cannon, the flames of nine or ten 
burning villages heated the air, and from dawn until sunset 
the immense hosts carried on a number of separate and des- 
perate battles at difi'erent points along the line. Napoleon 
had his station on a mound near a windmill: his centre held 



"When and where was Ney defeated? How was Napoleon affected? What 
did he do? What junction was effected? What forced Napoleon to leave 
Dresden? What movements then took place? How were the two armies then 
arranged? What was the first day's fight? What took place during the after- 
noon? What did Napoleon offer? Describe the battle of the 18th. 



1813.] napoleon's defeat. 633 

its position, ia spite of terrible losses, but both his wings 
were driven back. Bernadotte did not appear on the field 
until 4 in the afternoon, but about 4,000 Saxons and other 
Germans went over from the French to the Allies during the 
day, and the demoralizing effect of this desertion probably 
influenced Napoleon quite as much as his material losses. He 
gave orders for an instant retreat, which was commenced on 
the night of the 18th. His army was reduced to 100,000 men: 
the Allies had lost, in killed and wounded, about 50,000. 

All Germany was electrified by this victory; from the 
Baltic to the Alps, the land rang wath rejoicings. The people 
considered, and justly so, that they had won this great battle: 
the reigning princes, as later events proved, held a different 
opinion. But, from that day to this, it is called in Germany 
"the Battle of the Peoples": it was as crushing a blow for 
France as Jena had been to Prussia or Austerlitz to Austria. 
On the morning of the 19th of October the Allies began a 
storm upon Leipzig, which was still held by Marshal Mac- 
donald and Prince Poniatowsky to cover Napoleon's retreat. 
By noon the city was entered at several gates; the French, in 
their haste, blew up the bridge over the Elster river before a 
great part of their own troops had crossed, and Poniatowsky, 
with hundreds of others, was drowned in attempting to escape. 
Among the prisoners was the king of Saxony, who had stood 
by Napoleon until the last moment. In the afternoon 
Alexander I. and Frederick William entered Leipzig, and were 
received as deliverers by the people. 

The two monarchs, nevertheless, owed their success entirely 
to the devotion of the German people, and not at all to their 
own energy and military talent. In spite of the great forces 
still at their disposal, they interfered with the plans of Bliicher 
and other generals who insisted on a rapid and vigorous pur- 
suit, and were at any time ready to accept peace on terms 
which would have ruined Germany, if Napoleon had not been 



What was the situation of the French army? Who had gone over to the 
Allies? What order was given? What army had Napoleon? What were the 
losse?.? How did the people greet this victory? What is it called? What 
took place next morning? How was Leipzig held? Describe the retreat of 
the French. Who was taken prisoner? What happened in the afternoon 
To whom was the success due? 



534 



RETBEAT FEOM GERMANY. 



[Ibl3. 



insane enough to reject them. The latter continued his march 
towards France, by way of Naumburg, Erfurt and Fulda, 




bluchee's army crossing the rhink. 



losing thousands by desertion and disease, but without any 
serious interference until he reached Hanau, near Frankfort. 
At almost the last moment (October 14), Maximilian I. of 



What was the course of the allied monarchs? What was the character of 
Napoleon's retreat? 



1814.] BLUCHER CROSSES THE RHINE. 535 

Bavaria had deserted France and joined the Allies : one of his 
generals, Wrede, with about 55,000 Bavarians and Austrians, 
marched northward, and at Hanau intercepted the French. 
Napoleon, not caring to engage in a battle, contented himself 
with cutting his way through Wrede's army, on the 25th of 
October. He crossed the Rhine and reached France with less 
than 70,000 men, without encountering further resistance. 

Jerome Bonaparte fled from his kingdom of Westphalia 
immediately after the battle of Leipzig: Wiirtemberg joined 
the Allies, the Rhine-Bund dissolved, and the artificial struc- 
ture which Napoleon had created fell to pieces. Even then, 
Prussia, Russia and Austria wished to discontinue the war: 
the popular enthusiasm in Germany was taking a national 
character, the people were beginning to feel their own power, 
and this was very disagreeable to Alexander 1. and Metternich. 
The Rhine was offered as a boundary to Napoleon : yet, although 
Wellington was by this time victorious in Spain and was about 
to cross the Pyrenees, the French Emperor refused and the 
Allies were reluctantly obliged to resume hostilities. They 
had already wasted much valuable time: they now adopted a 
plan which was sure to fail, -if the energies of France had not 
been so utterly exhausted. 

Three armies were formed: one, under Biilow, was sent 
into Holland to overthrow the French rule there; another; 
under Schwarzenberg, marched through Switzerland into Bur- 
gundy, about the end of December, hoping to meet with Wel- 
lington somewhere in Central France; and the third under 
Bliicher, which had been delayed longest by the doubt and 
hesitation of the sovereigns, crossed the Rhine at three points, 
from Coblentz to Mannheim, on the night of New- Year, 1814. 
The subjection of Germany to France was over: only the 
garrisons of a number of fortresses remained, but these were 
already besieged, and they surrendered one by one, in the 
course of the next few months. 



Who joined the Allies? What did General Wrede undertake? How did 
Napoleon meet him, and when? How did he reach France? What events 
followed, in Germany? What did the Allies wish, and why? What was 
offered to Napoleon? How received? What plan did the Allies adopt? How 
did they order the three armies to march? What was the situation of Ger- 
many on January 1st, 1814? 



536 napoleon's defence. [1S14. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

FROM THE LIBERATION OF GERMANY TO THE YEAR 1848. 

(1814—1848.) 

Napoleon's Retreat.— Halting Course of the Allies. — The Treaty of Paris. — The 
Congress of Vienna. — Napoleon's Return to France. — New Alliance. — Napo- 
leon, Wellington and Bliicher. — Battles of Ligny and Quatrebras. — Battle 
of Waterloo. — New Treaty with France. — European Changes. — Reconstruc- 
tion of Germany. — Metternich Arranges a Confederation. — Its Character. — 
The Holy Alliance. — Reaction among the Princes. — Movement of the Stu- 
dents. — Conference at Carlsbad.— Returning Despotism. — Condition of Ger- 
many. — Changes in 1830. — The ZoUverein.— Death of Francis II. and Fred- 
erick William III. — Frederick William IV. as King. — The German-Catholic 
Movement in 1844. — General Dissatisfaction. 

Napoleon's genius was never more brilliantly manifested 
than during the slow advance of the Allies from the Rhine to 
Paris, in the first three months of the year 1814. He had not 
expected an invasion before the spring, and was taken by sur- 
prise; but with all the courage and intrepidity of his younger 
years, he collected an army of 100,000 men, and marched 
against Bliicher, who had already reached Brienne. In a battle 
on the 29th of January he was victorious, but a second on the 
1st of February compelled him to retreat. Instead of follow- 
ing up this advantage , the three monarchs began to consult : 
they rejected Bliicher's demand for a union of the armies and 
an immediate march on Paris, and ordered him to follow the 
river Marne in four divisions, while Schwarzenberg advanced 
by a more southerly route. This was just what Napoleon 
wanted. He hurled himself upon the divided Prussian forces, 
and in five successive battles, from the 10th to the 14th of 
February, defeated and drove them back. Then, rapidly turn- 
ing southward, he defeated a part of Schwarzenberg's army at 
Montereau on the 18th, and compelled the latter to retreat. 

The Allies now offered peace, granting to France the 



When and bow did Napoleon exhibit his genius? How did he meet the 
invasion? What battles followed? What did the three monarchs order? How 
did Napoleon take advantage of this? What did he then do? 



1814.] 



OFFER OF THE ALLIES. 



537 



boundaries of 1792, which included Savoy, Lorraine and Alsa- 
tia. The history of their negotiations during the campaign 




MAHSHAL BLt'CHER. 



shows how reluctantly they prosecuted the war, and what little 
right they have to its final success, which is wholly due to 



What did the Allies offer? 



538 THE TKEATY OF PAKIS. [1814. 

Stein, Bliicher and the bravery of the German soldiers. Napo- 
leon was so elated by his victories that he rejected the offer ; 
and then, at last^ the union of the allied armies and their 
march on Paris was permitted. Battle after battle followed: 
Napoleon disputed every inch of ground with the most mar- 
vellous energy, but even his victories were disasters, for he 
had no means of replacing the troops he lost. The last fight 
took place at the gates of Paris , on the 30th of March , and 
the next day, at noon, the three sovereigns made their trium- 
phal entrance into the city. 

Not until then did the latter determine to dethrone Napo- 
leon and restore the Bourbon dynasty. They compelled the 
act of abdication, which Napoleon signed at Fontainebleau on 
the 11th of April, installed the Count d'Artois (afterwards 
Charles X.) as head of a temporary government, and gave to 
France the boundaries of 1792. Napoleon was limited to the 
little island of Elba, Maria Louisa received the Duchy of 
Parma, and the other Bonapartes were allowed to retain the 
title of Prince, with an income of 2,500,000 francs. One million 
francs was given to the Ex-Empress Josephine, who died the 
same year. No indemnity was exacted from France; not even 
the works of art, stolen from the galleries of Italy and Ger- 
many for the adornment of Paris, were reclaimed! After endur- 
ing ten years of humiliation and outrage, the Allies were as 
tenderly considerate as if their invasion of France had been a 
wrong, for which they must atone by all possible concessions. 

In Southern Germany, where very little national sentiment 
existed, the treaty was quietly accepted, but it provoked great 
indignation among the people in the North. Their rejoicings 
over the downfall of Napoleon , the deliverance of Germany, 
and (as they believed) the foundation of a liberal government 
for themselves, were disturbed by this manifestation of weak- 
ness on the part of their leaders. The European Congress, 



What do their actions show? How did Napoleon act? What followed? 
How did Napoleon resist? What was the end of the campaign? Upon wliat 
did the sovereigns determine? When and where was the abdication signed? 
W!io was installed in the Government? What boundaries did France receive? 
What was given to Napoleon? To Maria Louisa? To the other Bonapartcs? 
How was France treated? How was the treaty accepted in Germany? How 
were tlie people disappointed ? 



1S15.] napoleon's return to FRANCE. 539 

which was opened on the 1st of November, 1814, at Vienna, 
was not calculated to restore their confidence. Francis II. and 
Alexander I. were the leading figures: other nations were re- 
presented by their best statesmen ; the former priestly rulers, 
all the petty princes, and hundreds of the "Imperial" nobility 
whose privileges had been taken away from them, attended in 
the hope of recovering something from the general chaos. A 
series of splendid entertainments was given to the members 
of the Congress, and it soon became evident to the world that 
Europe, and especially Germany, was to be reconstructed ac- 
cording to the will of the individual rulers, without reference 
to principle or people. 

France was represented in the Congress by Talleyrand, 
who was greatly the superior of the other members in the arts 
of diplomacy. Before the winter was over, he persuaded 
Austria and England to join France in an alliance against 
Russia and Prussia, and another European war would probably 
have broken out, but for the startling news of Napoleon's 
landing in France on the 1st of March, 1815. Then, all were 
compelled to suspend their jealousies and unite against their 
common foe. On the 25th of March a new alliance was con- 
cluded between Austria, Russia, Prussia and England: the 
first three agreed to furnish 150,000 men each, while the last 
contributed a lesser number of soldiers and £5,000,000 in 
money. All the smaller German States joined m the move- 
ment, and the people were still so full of courage and patriotic 
hope that a much larger force than was needed was soon under 
arms. 

Napoleon reached Paris on the 20th of March, and instantly 
commenced the organization of a new army, while offering 
peace to all the powers of Europe, on the basis of the treaty 
of Paris. This time, he received no answer: the terror of his 
name had passed away, and the allied sovereigns acted with 
promptness and courage. Though he held France, Napoleon's 



"Wliat Oongress was held? Who attended? What soon became evident? 
By whom was France represented? What alliance did he bring about? Whut 
prevented another war? Who combined against Napoleon? What did they 
agree to furnish ? How was the movement supported , in Germany ? Whut 
did Napoleon do? How was his offer received. 



54:0 BATTLES OF LIGNY AND WATEKLOO. [1815. 

position was not strong, even there. The land had suffered 
terribly, and the people desired peace, which they had never 
enjoyed under his rule. He raised nearly half a million of 
soldiers, but was obliged to use the greater portion in pre- 
venting outbreaks among the population; then, selecting the 
best, he marched towards Belgium with an army of 120,000, 
in order to meet \yellington and Bliicher by turns, before they 
could unite. The former had 100,000 men, most of them 
Dutch and Germans, under his command: the latter, with 
115,000, was rapidly approaching from the East. By this 
time — the beginning of June — neither the Austrians nor 
Russians had entered France. 

On the 16th of June two battles occurred. Napoleon fought 
Bliicher at Ligny, while Marshal Ney, with 40,000 men, at- 
tacked Wellington at Quatrebras. Thus neither of the allies 
was able to help the other. Bliicher defended himself des- 
perately, but his horse was shot under him and the French 
cavalry almost rode over him as he lay upon the ground. He 
was rescued with difficulty, and then compelled to fall back. 
The battle between Ney and Wellington was hotly contested; 
the gallant Duke of Brunswick was slain in a cavalry charge, 
and the losses on both sides were very great, but neither could 
claim a decided advantage. Wellington retired to Waterloo 
the next day, to be nearer Bliicher, and then Napoleon, unit- 
ing with Ney, marched against him with 75,000 men, while 
Grouchy was sent with 36,000 to engage Bliicher. Wellington 
had 68,000 men, so the disproportion in numbers was not 
very great, but Napoleon was much stronger in cavalry and 
artillery. 

The great battle of Waterloo began on the morning of 
the 18th of June. Wellington was attacked again and again, 
and the utmost courage and endurance of his soldiers barely 
enabled them to hold their ground: the charges of the French 
were met by an equally determined resistance, but the fate of 



What was his position, in France? Where did he march? What force 
had Wellington? What had Bliicher? Where was he? jWhat two battles 
occurred, and when? What happened at Ligny ? What at Quatrebras? Where 
did Wellington retire, and why? What was Napoleon's next movement? 
What was Wellington's force? What battle began, and when? 



1815.] 



AEBIVAIi OF THE PRUSSIANS. 



541 



the battle depended on Bliicher's arrival. The latter left a 
few corps at Wavre, his former position, in order to deceive 
Grouchy, and pushed forward through rain and across a 




ABBIVAIi OF THE PRUSSIANS AT wATBlRIiOO. 

marshy country to WelKngton's relief. At 4 o'clock in the 
afternoon Napoleon made a tremendous effort to break the 
English centre : the endurance of his enemy began to fail, and 



What was Wellington's situation? What was Bliicher's movement? 



42 



END OF NAPOLEON S BULE, 



[1815. 



there were signs of wavering along the English lines when 
the cry was heard: "the Prussians are coming!" Billow's corps 
soon appeared on the French flank, Bliicher's army closed in 
shortly afterwards, and by 8 o'clock the French were flying 
from the field. There were no allied monarchs on hand to 
arrest the pursuit: Bliicher and Wellington followed so rapidly 




RETURN OF THE TROOPS TO GERMANY. 



that they stood before Paris within ten days, and Napoleon 
was left without any alternative but instant surrender. The 
losses at Waterloo, on both sides, were 50,000 killed and 
wounded. 

This was the end of Napoleon's interference in the history 
of Europe. All his off'ers were rejected, he was deserted by 
the French, and a fortnight afterwards, failing in his plan of 



"What happened in the afternoon? 
eached? What were the losses? 



What was the end? When was Paris 



1815] THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. 543 

escaping ,to America, he surrendered to the captain of an 
English frigate off the port of Rochefort. From that moment 
until his death at St. Helena on the 5th of May, 1821, he was 
a prisoner and an exile. A new treaty was made between the 
allied monarchs and the Bourbon dynasty of France: this time 
the treasures of art and learning were restored to Italy and 
Germany, an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs was exacted. 
Savoy was given back to Sardinia, and a little strip of territory, 
including the fortresses of Saarbriick, Saarlouis and Landau, 
added to Germany. The attempt of Austria and Prussia to 
acquire Lorraine and Alsatia was defeated by the cunning 
of Talleyrand and the opposition of Alexander L of Russia. 

The jealousies and dissensions in the Congress of Vienna 
were hastily arranged during the excitement occasioned by 
Napoleon's return from Elba, and the members patched to- 
gether, within three months, a new political map of Europe. 
There was no talk of restoring the lost kingdom of Poland; 
Prussia's claim to Saxony (which the king, Frederick Augustus, 
had fairly forfeited) was defeated by Austria and England; 
and then, after each of the principal powers had secured what- 
ever was possible, they combined to regulate the afifairs of 
the helpless smaller States. Holland and Belgium were added 
together, called the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and given to 
the house of Orange: Switzerland, which had joined the Allies 
against France, was allowed to remain a republic and received 
some slight increase of territory; and Lorraine and Alsatia 
were lost to Germany. 

Austria received Lombardy and Venice, Hlyria, Dalmatia, 
the Tyrol, Salzburg, Galicia and whatever other territory she 
formerly possessed. Prussia gave up Warsaw to Russia, but 
kept Posen, recovered Westphalia and the territory on the 
Lower Rhine, and was enlarged by the annexation of Swedish 
Pomerania, part of Saxony, and the former archbishoprics of 
Mayence, Treves and Cologne. East-Friesland was taken 



What was Napoleon's further history ? What was Franco compelled to do? 
What was given to Sardinia and Germany? What attempt was defeated? By 
whom? What was done by the Congress of Vienna? How was Poland 
treated? What became of Prussia's claim to Saxony? What was done with 
Holland aud Belgium? Switzerland? What did Austria receive? How was 
Prussia changed? 

24 



544 KECONSTRUCTION OF GEEMANY. [l815. 

from Prussia and given to Hannover, wliicli was made a king- 
dom: Weimar, Oldenburg and the two Mecklenburgs were 
made Grand-Duchies, and Bavaria received a new slice of 
Franconia, including the cities of Wiirzburg and Bayreuth, as 
well as all of the former Palatinate lying west of the Rliine. 
Frankfort, Bremen, Hamburg and Liibeck were allowed to 
remain free cities: the other smaller States were favored in 
various ways, and only Saxony suffered by the loss of nearly 
half her territory. Fortunately the priestly rulers were not 
restored, and the privileges of the free nobles of the Middle 
Ages not reestablished. Napoleon, far more justly than 
Attila, had been "the Scourge of God" to Germany. In crush- 
ing rights, he had also crushed a thousand abuses, and although 
the monarchs who ruled the Congress of Vienna were thoroughly 
reactionary in their sentiments, they could not help decreeing 
that what was dead in the political constitution of Germany 
should remain dead. 

All the German States, however, felt that some form of 
union was necessary. The people dreamed of a Nation, of a 
renewal of the old Empire in some better and stronger form ; 
but this was mostly a vague desire on their part, without any 
practical ideas as to how it should be accomplished. The Ger- 
man ministers at Vienna were divided in their views; and 
Metternich took advantage of their impatience and excitement 
to propose a scheme of Confederation which introduced as few 
changes as possible into the existing state of affairs. It was 
so drawn up that while it presented the appearance of an or- 
ganization, it secured the supremacy of Austria, and only 
united the German States in mutual defence against a foreign 
foe and in mutual suppression of internal progress. This 
scheme, hastily prepared, was hastily adopted on the 10th of 
June, 1815 (before the battle of Waterloo), and controlled the 
destinies of Germany for nearly fifty years afterwards. 

The new Confederation was composed of the Austrian 



Hannover? What States became Grand-Duchies? What did Eavaria re- 
ceive? Which were the free cities ? What State lost? What were not restored? 
How had Napoleon helped Germany? What was desired by the people? 
Who proposed a scheme? What was its character? When was it adopted? 
How long did it last? 



1815.] THE NEW CONTEDERATION. 545 

Empire, the Kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtem- 
berg and Hannover, the Grand-Duchies of Baden, Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Strelitz, Saxe-Weimar and 
Oldenburg; the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel; the Duchies of 
Brunswick, Nassau, Saxe-Gotha, Coburg, Meiningen and Hild- 
burghausen, Anhalt-Dessau, Bernburg and Kothen; Denmark, 
on account of Holstein; the Netherlands, on account of Luxem- 
burg ; the four Free Cities ; and 1 1 small principalities, — mak- 
ing a total of 39 States. The Act of Union assured to them 
equal rights, independent sovereignty, the peaceful settlement 
of disputes between them, and representation in a General 
Diet, which was to be held at Frankfort, under the presidency 
of Austria. All together were required to support a perma- 
nent army of 300,000 men for their common defence. One 
article required each State to introduce a representative form 
of government. All religions were made equal before the law, 
the right of emigration was conceded to the people, the navi- 
gation of the Rhine was released from taxes , and freedom of 
the Press was permitted. 

Of course, the carrying of these provisions into effect was 
left entirely to the rulers of the States: the people were not 
recognized as possessing any political power. Even the "re- 
presentative government" which was assured did not include 
the right of suffrage; the King, or Duke, might appoint a 
legislative body which represented only a class or party, and 
not the whole population. Moreover, the Diet was prohibited 
from adopting any new measure, or making any change in the 
form of the Confederation, except by a unanimous vote. 
The whole scheme was a remarkable specimen of promise to 
the ears of the German People, and of disappointment to their 
hearts and minds. 

The Congress of Vienna was followed by an event of quite 
an original character. Alexander I. of Eussia persuaded 
Francis 11. and Frederick William HI. to unite with him in a 



Mention the principal German States. How many in all? What did the 
Act of Union secure to them? What array were they required to furnish? 
What other provisions were there? To whom was their enforcement left? 
What power had the rulers, in regard to representation? What prohibition 
was attached ? 



546 THE HOLY ALLIANCE. [1816. 

"Holy AJlIance," which all the other monarchs of Europe were 
invited to join. It was simply a declaration, not a political 
act. The document set forth that its signers pledged them- 
selves to treat each other with brotherly love, to consider all 
nations as members of one Christian family, to rule their lands 
with justice and kindness , and to be tender fathers to their 
subjects. No forms were prescribed, and each monarch was 
left free to choose his own manner of Christian rule. A great 
noise was made about the Holy Alliance at the time, because 
it seemed to guarantee peace to Europe, and peace was most 
welcome after such terrible wars. All other reigning Kings 
and Princes, except George lY. of England, Louis XVIII. of 
France, and the Pope, added their signatures, but not one of 
them manifested any more brotherly or fatherly love after the 
act than before. 

The new German Confederation having given the separate 
States a fresh lease of life, after all their convulsions, the 
rulers set about establishing themselves firmly on their re- 
paired thrones. Only the most intelligent among them felt 
that the days of despotism, however "enlightened," were over; 
others avoided the liberal provisions of the Act of Union, 
abolished many political reforms which had been introduced 
by Napoleon, and oppressed the common people even more 
than his satellites had done. The Elector of Hesse -Cassel 
made his soldiers wear powdered queues, as in the last century ; 
the King of Wiirtemberg court-martialled and cashiered the 
general who had gone over with his troops to the German 
side at the battle of Leipzig; and in Mecklenburg the liberated 
people were declared serfs. The introduction of a legislative 
assembly was delayed, in some States even wholly disregarded. 
Baden and Bavaria adopted a Constitution in 1818, Wiirtemberg 
and Hesse-Darmstadt in 1819, but in Prussia an imperfect 
form of representative government for the provinces was not 
arranged until 1823. Austria, meanwhile, had restored some 



"What followed the Congress of Vienna? Describe the "Holy Alliance." 
How were tlie monarchs left free? Why was the Alliance popular? Who 
signed it, and how was it observed? What did the German rulers next do? 
What did the most intelligent perceive? How did the otliers act? Wliat was 
done in Hesse-Cassel? In Wiirtemberg? Mecklenburg? What States adopted 
Constitutions, and when? 



1S17.J MOVEMENT AMONG THE STUDENTS. ' 5i7 

ancient privileges of the same kind, of little practical value, 
because not adapted to the conditions of the age; the people 
were obliged to be content with them, for they received no 
more. 

No class of Germans were so bitterly disappointed in the 
results of their victory and deliverance as the young men, es- 
pecially the thousands who had fought in the ranks in 1813 
and 1815. At all the Universities tlie students formed socie- 
ties which were inspired by two ideas — Union and Freedom : 
fiery speeches were made, songs were sung, and free expression 
was given to their distrust of the governments under which 
they lived. On the 18th of October, 1817, they held a grand 
Convention at the Wartburg — the castle near Eisenach, where 
Luther lay concealed, — and this event occasioned great alarm 
among the reactionary class. The students were very hostile 
to the influence of Russia, and many persons who were sus- 
pected of being her secret agents became specially obnoxious 
to them. One of the latter was the dramatic author, Kotzebue, 
who was assassinated in March, 1819, by a young student 
named Sand. There is not the least evidence that this deed 
was the result of a wide-spread conspiracy; but almost every 
reigning prince thereupon imagined tliat his life was in danger. 

A Congress of Ministers was held at Carlsbad the same 
summer, and the most despotic measures against the so-called 
"Revolution" were adopted. Freedom of the Press was abol- 
ished; a severe censorship enforced; the formation of societies 
among the students and turners was prohibited, the Univer- 
sities were placed under the imjnediate supervision of govern- 
ment, and even Commissioners were appointed to hear what 
the Professors said in their lectures! Many of the best men 
in Germany, among them the old teacher, Jahn, and the poet 
Arndt, ^vere deprived of their situations, and placed under a 
form of espionage. Hundreds of young men, who had perpe- 
trated no single act of resistance, were thrown into prison for 
years, others forced to fly from the country, and every mani- 



What took place in Austria? What class was most disappointed? What 
course did they take? What Convention was held? To whom were the Stu- 
dents hostile? What happened in 1819? Who were alarmed by it? What 
Congress was thereupon held? What morteures were adopted? How were tho 
proniiu'jnt patriots treated? 



548 



DESPOTISM EESTORED. 



[1819. 



festation of interest in political subjects became an offence. 
The effort of the German States, now, was to counteract the 




CONVENTION OF STUDENTS AT THE WARTBUBG. 

popular rights, guaranteed by the Confederation, by establish- 
ing an arbitrary and savage police system; and there were 



Tho youn;? men? 



1880.] EEVOLUTIONAEY MOVEMENTS. 549 

few parts of the country where the people retained as much 
genuine liberty as they had enjoyed a hundred years before. 

The History of Germany, during the thirty years of peace 
which followed, is marked by very few events of importance. 
It was a season of gradual reaction on the part of the rulers, 
and of increasing impatience and enmity on the part of the 
people. Instead of becoming loving families, as the Holy 
AUiance designed, the States (except some of the little princi- 
palities) were divided into two hostile classes. There was 
material growth everywhere: the wounds left by war and 
foreign occupation were gradually healed; there was order, 
security for all who abstained from politics, and a comfortable 
repose for such as were indifferent to the future. But it was 
a sad and disheartening period for the men who were able to 
see clearly how Germany, with all the elements of a freer and 
stronger life existing in her people, was falling behind the 
political development of other countries. 

The three Days' Revolution of 1830, which placed Louis 
Philippe on the throne of France, was followed by popular 
uprisings in some parts of Germany. Prussia and Austria 
were too strong, and their people too well held in check, to 
be affected; but in Brunswick the despotic Duke, Karl, was 
deposed, Saxony and Hesse-Cassel were obliged to accept co- 
rulers (out of their reigning families) and the English Duke, 
Ernest Augustus, was made Yiceroy of Hannover. These 
four States also adopted a constitutional form of government. 
The German Diet, as a matter of course, used what power it 
possessed to counteract these movements, but its influence 
was limited by its own laws of action. The hopes and aspi- 
rations of the people were kept alive, in spite of the system of 
repression, and some of the smaller States took advantage of 
their independence to introduce various measures of reform. 

As industry, commerce and travel increased, the existence 
of so many boundaries, with their custom-houses, taxes and 



What did the German States attempt? What "was the condition of Ger- 
many, and for how long? How had the Holy Alliance worked? What mate- 
rial improvement was there? What discouragement? What foUowed the 
French Revolution of 1830? What happened in Brunswick? Saxony? Hazi- 
nover? What did the Gemxan Diet do? 



550 FEANCIS II. AND FKEDEEICK WILLIAM III. [1840. 

other hindrances, became an unendurable burden. Bavaria 
and AViirtemberg formed a customs union in 1828, Prussia 
followed, and by 1836 all of Germany except Austria was 
united in the ZoUvcrcm (Tariff Union), which was not only a 
great material advantage, but helped to inculcate the idea of 
a closer political union. On the other hand, however, the 
monarchical reaction against liberal government was stronger 
than ever. Ernest Augustus of Hannover arbitrarily overthrew 
tlie constitution he had accepted, and Ludwig I. of Bavaria, 
renouncing all his former professions, made his land a very 
nest of absolutism and Jesuitism. In Prussia, such men as 
Stein, Gneisenau and Wilhelm von Humboldt had long lost 
their influence, while others of less personal renown, but of 
similar political sentiments, were subjected to contemptible 
forms of persecution. 

In March, 1835, Francis II. of Austria died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Ferdinand I., a man of such weak intellect 
that he was in some respects idiotic. On the 7th of June, 
1840, Frederick William HI. of Prussia died, and was also 
succeeded by his son, Frederick William IV., a man of great 
wit and intelligence, who had made himself popular as Crown- 
prince, and whose accession the people hailed with joy, in the 
enthusiastic belief that better days were coming. The two 
dead monarchs, each of whom had reigned 43 years, left be- 
hind them a better memory among their people than they 
actually deserved. They were both weak, unstable and narrow- 
minded; had they not been controlled by others, they would 
have ruined Germany; but they were alike of excellent per- 
sonal character, amiable, and very kindly disposed towards 
their subjects so long as the latter were perfectly obedient 
and reverential. 

There was no change in the condition of Austria, for 
Metternich remained the real ruler, as before. In Prussia, a 



"What new reforms became necessary? What Union was formed in 1836? 
Wliat reaction became stronger? How did Ernest Augustus of Hannover act? 
Ludwig I. of Bavaria? What was the state of things in Prussia? When did 
Francis II. die, and who succeeded? When did a change occur in Prussia? 
How was Frederick William IV. hailed by the people? What may be said of 
tho Vvo dead monarchs? What were their faults and good qualities? Who 
was the real ruler, in Austrui? 



1844.] THE GEEMAN-CATHOLIC MOVEMENT. 551 

few unimportant concessions were made, an amnesty for poli- 
tical offences was declared, Alexander von Humboldt became 
the king's chosen associate, and much was done for science 
and art; but in their main hope of a liberal reorganization of 
the government, the people were bitterly deceived. Frederick 
William IV. took no steps towards the adoption of a Consti- 
tution ; he made the censorship and the supervision of the 
police more severe; he interfered in the most arbitrary and 
bigoted manner in the system of religious instruction in the 
scliools ; and all his acts showed that his policy was to streng- 
then his throne by the support of the nobility and the civil 
service, without regard to the just claims of the people. 

Thus, in spite of the external quiet and order, the political 
atmosphere gradually became more sultry and disturbed, all 
over Germany. In 1844, a Catholic priest named Ronge, dis- 
gusted with the miracles alleged to have been performed by 
the so-called *'Holy Coat" (of the Saviour!) at Treves, published 
addresses to the German People, which created a great excite- 
ment. He advocated the establishment of a German-Catholic 
Church, and found so many followers that the Protestant 
king of Prussia became alarmed , and all the influence of his 
government was exerted against the movement. It was as- 
serted that the reform was taking a political and revolutionary 
character, because, under the weary system of repression which 
they endured, the people hailed any and every sign of mental 
and spiritual independence. Rouge's reform was checked at 
the very moment when it promised success, and the idea of 
forcible resistance to the government began to spread, among 
all classes of the population. 

There were signs of impatience in all quarters; various 
local outbreaks occurred, and the aspects were so threatening 
that in February, 1847, Frederick William IV. endeavored to 
silence the growing opposition by ordering the formation of a 
Legislative Assembly. But the provinces were represented, 
not the people, and the measure only emboldened the latter 



"What took place in Prussia? How were the people deceived? What were 
Frederick William IV.'s measures? What was his policy? What occurred 
in 1844? What did Ronge propose? How did the king of Prussia act? Why 
was the movement opposed? What was the result? What was Frederick 
William IV. compelled to do, in 1847? 



552 THE BE VOLUTION. [1848. 

to clamor for a direct representation. Thereupon, the king 
closed the Assembly, after a short session, and the attempt 
was probably productive of more harm than good. In most of 
the other German States, the situation was very similar: every- 
where there were elements of oj)position, all the more violent 
and dangerous, because they had been kept down with a 
strong hand for so many years. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND ITS RESULTS. 

(1848—1861.) 

The Revolution of 1848.— Events in Berlin.— Alarm of the Diet.— The Tro- 
visional Asseuibly. — First National Parliament. — Divisions among the 
Members. — Revolt in Schleswig-Holstein. — Its End. — Insurrection in Frank- 
fort. — Condition of Austria.— Vienna Taken.— The War in Hungary. — 
Surrender of Gorgey. — Uprising of Lombardy and Venice.— Abdication of 
Ferdinand I. — Frederick William IV. Offered the Imperial Crown of Ger- 
many. — New Outbreaks. — Dissolution of the Parliament. — Austria Renews 
the Old Diet. — Despotic Reaction everywhere. — Evil Days. — Lessons of 
1848.— William I. Becomes Regent in Prussia. — New Hopes.— Italian Unity. 
—William I. King. 

The sudden breaking out of the Revolution of February, 
1848, in Paris, the flight of Louis Philippe and his family, 
and the proclamation of the Republic, acted in Germany like 
a spark dropped upon powder. All the disappointments of 
thirty years, the smouldering impatience and sense of outrage, 
the powerful aspiration for political freedom among the people, 
broke out in sudden flame. There was instantly an outcry for 
freedom of speech and of the press, the right of suffrage, and 
a constitutional form of government, in every State. Baden, 
where Struve and Hecker were already prominent as leaders 



Why was the measure unsatisfactory? What did the king do? What was 
the situation everywhere? 

How did the French Revolution of 1848 affect Germany? What elements 
came to the light? What was demanded? 



1S18.] A NATIONAL PARLIAMENT CALLED. 553 

of the opposition, took the lead: then, on the 13th of March 
the people of Vienna rose, and after a bloody fight with the 
troops compelled Metternich to give up his office as Minister, 
and seek safety in exile. 

In Berlin, Frederick William IV. yielded to the pressure 
on the 18th of March, but, either by accident or rashness, a 
fight was brought on between the soldiers and the people, and 
a number of the latter were slain. Their bodies, lifted on 
planks, with all the bloody wounds exposed, were carried 
before the royal palace and the king was compelled to come 
to the window and look upon them. All the demands of the 
revolutionary party w^ere thereupon instantly granted. The 
next day Frederick William rode through the streets, preceded 
by the ancient Imperial banner of black , red and gold , swore 
to grant the rights which were demanded, and, with the con- 
currence of the other princes, to put himself at the head of a 
movement for German Unity. A proclamation was published 
which closed with the words: ''From this day forward, Prussia 
becomes merged in Germany." The soldiers were removed from 
Berlin, and the popular excitement gradually subsided. 

Before these outbreaks occurred, the Diet at Frankfort 
had caught the alarm, and hastened to take a step which 
seemed to yield something to the general demand. On the 
1st of March, it invited the separate States to send special 
delegates to Frankfort, empowered to draw up a new form of 
union for Germany. Four days afterwards, a meeting which 
included many of the prominent men of Southern Germany 
was held at Heidelberg, and it was decided to hold a Provisional 
Assembly at Frankfort, as a movement preliminary to the 
great.er changes which were anticipated. This proposal re- 
ceived a hearty response: on the 31st of March quite a large 
and respectable body, from all the German States, came to- 
gether in Frankfort. The demand of the party headed by 
Hecker that a Republic should be proclaimed, was rejected; 



What people took the lead? What happened in Vienna, and when? In 
Berlin? What took place afterwards? What did the king do, and promise? 
What was proclaimed? What was done by the Diet at Frankfort? Where 
was a meeting held? What was decided? When and where did the Pro- 
visional Assembly meet? What demand was rejected? 



554 



A UNITED GERMANY. 



[1843. 



but the principle of "the sovereignty of the people" was 
adopted, Schleswig and Holstein, which had risen in revolt 
against the Danish rule, were declared to be a part of Ger- 




THE BODIES OP THE DEAD CAEEIED BEFORE THE KING. 

many, and a Committee of Fifty was appointed , to cooperate 
with the old Diet in calling a National Parliament. 

There was great rejoicing in Germany over these measures. 
The people were full of hope and confidence: the men who 



What was adopted? What appointment was mads? IIow were these 
measures received? 



1848.] DIVISION INTO PARTIES. 565 

were chosen as candidates and elected by sufirage, were almost 
without exception persons of character and intelligence, and 
when they came together, 600 in number, and opened the 
first National Parliament of Germany, in the church of St. Paul, 
in Frankfort, on the 18th of May, 1848, there were few 
patriots who did not believe in a speedy and complete regene- 
ration of their country. In the meantime, however, Hecker 
and Struve, who had organized a great number of republican 
clubs throughout Baden, arose in arms against the government. 
After maintaining themselves for two weeks in Freiburg and 
the Black Forest, they were defeated and forced to take refuge 
in Switzerland. Hecker went to America, and Struve, making 
a second attempt shortly afterwards, was taken prisoner. 

The lack of practical political experience among the mem- 
bers soon disturbed the Parliament. The most of them were 
governed by theories, and insisted on carrying out certain 
principles, instead of trying to adapt them to the existing 
circumstances. With all their honesty and genuine patriotism, 
they relied too much on the sudden enthusiasm of the people, 
and undervalued the actual strength of the governing classes, 
because the latter had so easily yielded to the first surprise. 
The republican party was in a decided minority; and the re- 
mainder soon became divided between the "Small -Germans," 
who favored the union of all the States, except Austria, under 
a constitutional monarchy, and the "Great-Germans," who in- 
sisted that Austria should be included. After a great deal of 
discussion, the former Diet was declared abolished on the 
28th of June; a Provisional Central Government was appointed, 
and the Archduke John of Austria — an amiable, popular and 
inoffensive old man — was elected "Vicar-General of the Em- 
pire." This action was accepted by all the States except 
Austria and Prussia, which delayed to commit themselves 
until they were strong enough to oppose the whole scheme. 

The history of 1848 is divided into so many detached 



When and -where did the Parliament meet? What was hoped? What out* 
break occurred? How did it end? What became of Hecker and Struve? 
How was the Parliament disturbed? What mistakes were made by the pa- 
triotic members? What two new parties were formed? What was done ou 
the 28th of June? Who accepted thoee mcaeurcB? What States refused? 



556 INSURRECTION IN FRANKFORT. [1&48. 

episodes, that it cannot be given in a connected form. The 
revolt which broke out in Schleswig-Holstein early in March, 
was supported by enthusiastic German volunteers, and then 
by a Prussian army, which drove the Danes back into Jutland. 
Great rejoicing was occasioned by the destruction of the Danish 
frigate Christian VIIL and the capture of the Gefion^ at 
Eckernford^by a battery commanded by Duke Ernest 11. of 
Goburg-Gotha. But England and Russia threatened armed 
intervention; Prussia was forced to suspend hostilities and 
make a truce with Denmark, on terms which looked very much 
like an abandonment of the cause of Schleswig-Holstein. 

This action was accepted by a majority of the Parliament 
at Frankfort, — a course which aroused the deepest indignation 
of the democratic minority and their sympathizers everywhere 
throughout Germany. On the 18th of September barricades 
were thrown up in the streets of Frankfort, and an armed 
mob stormed the church where the Parliament was in session, 
but was driven back by Prussian and Hessian troops. Two 
members, General Auerswald and Prince Lichnowsky, were 
barbarously murdered in attempting to escape from the city. 
Tliis lawless and bloody event was a great damage to the 
national cause: the two leading States, Prussia and Austria, 
instantly adopted a sterner policy, and there were soon signs 
of a general reaction against the Revolution. 

The condition of Austria, at this time, was very critical. 
The uprising in Vienna had been followed by powerful and 
successful rebellions in Lombardy, Hungary and Bohemia , and 
the Empire of the Hapsburgs seemed to be on the point ol 
dissolution. The struggle was confused and made more bitter 
by the hostility of the different nationalities: the Croatians, 
at the call of the Emperor, arose against the Hungarians, and 
then the Germans, in the Legislative Assembly held at Yienna, 
accused the government of being guided by Slavonic influences. 
Another furious outbreak occurred, Count Latour, the former 
minister of war, was hung to a lamp-post, and the city was 



"What happened in Schleswig-Holstein? What gave rise to rejoicings? By 
whose intervention, and how, was the matter settled? What did the Parlia- 
ment do? What was the effect? What took place in Frankfort, and when? 
Who were killed? What was the effect of this violence? How was Austria 
threatened? What made the struggle more hitter? 



1840.] END OF THE HUNGAKIAN WAE. 557 

again in the hands of the revolutionists. Kossutli, wIjo had 
become all-powerful in H'mgar}'. had already raised an army, 
to be employed in conquering the independence of his country, 
and he ' now marched rapidly towards Vienna , wliich was 
threatened by the Austrian general Windischgratz. Almost 
within sight of the city, he was defeated by Jellachich, the Ban 
of Croatia: the latter joined the Austrians, and after a furious 
bombardment, Yienna was taken by storm. Messenhauser, 
the commander of the insurgents, and Robert Blum, a member 
of the National Parliament, were afterwards shot by order of 
Windischgratz, who crushed out all resistance by the most 
severe and inhuman measures. 

Hungary, nevertheless, was already practically independent, 
and Kossuth stood at the head of the government. The move- 
ment was eagerly supported by the people : an army of 100,000 
men was raised, including cavalry which could hardly be 
equalled in Europe. Kossuth was supported by Gorgey, and 
the Polish generals, Bern and Dembinski; and although the 
Hungarians at first fell back before Windischgratz, who marched 
against them in December, they gained a series of splendid 
victories in the spring of 1849, and their success seemed 
assured. Austria was forced to call upon Russia for help, and 
the Emperor Nicholas responded by sending an army of 
140,000 men. Kossuth vainly hoped for the intervention of 
England and France in favor of Hungary ; up to the end of 
May the patriots were still victorious, then followed defeats 
in the field and confusion in the councils. The Hungarian 
government and a large part of the army fell back to Arad, 
where, on the 1 1th of August, Kossuth transferred his dictator- 
ship to Gorgey, and the latter, two days afterwards, surren- 
dered at Villages, with about 25,000 men, to the Russian general 
Rodiger. 

This surrender caused Gorgey's name to be execrated in 
Hungary, and by all who sympathized with the Hungarian 



What happened in Vienna? Who marched to the assistance of the people? 
By whom was he defeated? What followed? What was done by Windisch- 
gratz? What was the situation of Hungary? What army was raised? Who 
assisted Kossuth? What advantages did the Hungarians gain , and when ? 
To whom did Austria appeal? What did Kossuth hope? How long was ho 
successful? Describe the end of the insurrection. 



558 END OF THE WAR IN ITALY. [1849. 

cause throughout the world. It was made, however, with the 
knowledge of Kossuth, who had transferred his power to the 
former for that purpose, while he, with Bem, Dembinski and 
a few other followers, escaped into Turkey. In fact, further 
resistance would have been madness, for Haynau, who had 
succeeded to the command of the Austrian forces, was every- 
where successful in front, and the Russians were in the rear. 
The first judgment of the world upon Gorgey's act was there- 
fore unjust. The fortress of Comorn, on the Danube, was tho 
last post occupied by the Hungarians. It surrendered, after 
an obstinate siege, to Haynau, who then perpetrated such 
barbarities that his name became infamous in all countries. 

In Italy, the Revolution broke out in March, 1848. Mar- 
shal Radetsky, the Austrian Governor in Milan, was driven out 
of the city: the Lombards, supported by the Sardinians under 
their king, Charles Albert, drove him to Verona : Venice had 
also risen, and nearly all Northern Italy was thus freed from 
the Austrian yoke. In the course of the summer, however, 
Radetsky achieved some successes, and thereupon concluded 
an armistice with Sardinia, which left him free to undertake 
the siege of Venice. On the 12th of March, 1849, Charles 
Albert resumed the war, and on the 23d, in the battle of 
Novara, was so ruinously defeated that he abdicated the throne 
of Sardinia in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel. The latter, 
on leaving the field, shook his sword at the advancing Aus- 
trians, and cried out: "There shall yet be an Italy!" — but he 
was compelled at the time, to make peace on the best terms 
he could obtain. In August, Venice also surrendered, after a 
heroic defence, and Austria was again supreme in Italy as in 
Hungary. 

During this time, the National Parliament in Frankfort 
had been struggling against the difficulties of its situation. 
The democratic movement was almost suppressed, and there 
was an earnest effort to effect a German Union; but this was 



How was Gorgey's surrender regarded ? In what manner was it really 
made? Who commanded the Austrians? What was the end of the Hungarian 
insurrection? When, and in what manner, did the Revolution begin in Italy? 
Who aided the Lombards? What success had the movement? Wliat was 
Radetsky's course? What was the end of Charles Albert's movement? What 
did Victor Emanuel say and do? What event followed? 



1850.] DISSOLUTION OF THE PARLIAMENT. 559 

impossible without tlie concurrence of either Austria or Prussia, 
and the rivalry of the two gave rise to constant jealousies and 
impediments. On the 2d of December, 1848, the Viennese 
Ministry persuaded the idiotic Emperor Ferdinand to abdicate, 
and placed his nephew, Francis Joseph, a youth of 18, upon 
the throne. Every change of the kind begets new hopes, and 
makes a government temporarily popular; so this was a gain 
for Austria. Nevertheless, the "Small-German" party finally 
triumphed in the Parliament. On the 28th of March, 1849, 
Frederick Wilhelm IV. of Germany was elected "Hereditary 
Emperor of Germany." All the small States accepted the 
choice : Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Saxony and Hannover refused ; 
Austria protested, and the king himself, after hesitating for a 
week, declined. 

This was a great blow to the hopes of the national party. 
It was immediately followed by fierce popular outbreaks in 
Dresden, Wiirtemberg and Baden : in the last of these States 
the Grand-Duke was driven away, and a provisional govern- 
ment instituted. Prussia sent troops to suppress the revolt, and 
a war on a small scale was carried on during the months of 
June and July, when the republican forces yielded to superior 
power. This was the end of armed resistance : the governments 
had recovered from their panic, the French Eepublic, under 
the Prince-President Louis Napoleon, was preparing for mon- 
archy, Italy and Hungary were prostrate, and nothing was left 
for the earnest and devoted German patriots, but to save 
what rights they could from the wreck of their labors. 

The Parliament gradually dissolved, by the recall of some 
of its members, and the withdrawal of others. Only the 
democratic minority remained, and sought to keep up its 
existence by removing to Stuttgart; but, once there, it was 
soon forcibly dispersed. Prussia next endeavored to create a 
German Confederation, based on representation : Saxony and 
Hannover at first joined, a convention of the members of the 



What was the situation of the German Parliament? "What happened in 
Vienna, and when? What party triumphed? Who was elected Emperor, and 
when? How was the choice received? What outbreaks followed? How and 
when was the resistance suppressed? What was now the situation? How 
did the Parliament dissolve? What became of the minority? 



560 POLITICAL KE ACTION. [1852. 

"Small-German" party, held at Gotha, accepted the plan, and 
then the small States united, while Saxony and Hannover with- 
drew and allied themselves with Bavaria and Wiirtemberg in a 
counter-union. The adherents of the former plan met in Berlin 
in 1850: on the 1st of September, Austria declared the old 
Diet opened at Frankfort, under her presidency, and 12 States 
hastened to obey her call. The hostility between the two par- 
ties so increased that for a time war seemed to be inevitable: 
Austrian troops invaded Hesse -Cassel, an army was col- 
lected in Bohemia, while Prussia, relying on the help of 
Russia, was quite unprepared. Then Frederick William IV. 
yielded : Prussia submitted to Austria in all points, and on the 
15th of May, 1851, the Diet was restored in Frankfort, with 
a vague promise that its Constitution should be amended. 

Thus, after an interruption of three years, the old machine 
v/as put upon the old track, and a strong and united Germany 
seemed as far off as ever. A dismal period of reaction began. 
Louis Napoleon's violent assumption of power in December, 
1851, was welcomed by the German rulers, all of whom greeted 
the new Emperor as "brother"; a Congress held in London in 
May, 1852, confirmed Denmark in the possession of Schleswig 
and Holstein; Austria abolished her Legislative Assembly, in 
utter disregard of the provisions of 1815, upon which the 
Diet was based; Hesse-Cassel, with the consent of Austria, 
Prussia and the Diet, overthrew the constitution which had 
protected the people for 20 years ; and even Prussia, where 
an arbitrary policy was no longer possible, gradually suppressed 
the more liberal features of the government. Worse than this, 
the religious liberty which Germany had so long enjoyed, was 
insidiously assailed. Austria, Bavaria and Wiirtemberg made 
"Concordats" with the Pope, which gave the control of schools 
and marriages among the people into the hands of the priests. 
Frederick William IV. did his best to acquire the same des- 
potic power for the Protestant Church in Pnissia, and thereby 



' What did Prussia attempt? By whom was it supported? What counter- 
union was formed? When and how did Austria act? What movements 
foUowed? How did Prussia act? When was the Diet restored? How was 
the prospect changed? How was Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat haijed? What 
was done by a Congress in London ? What was done in Austria ? In Hesse- 
Cassel? In Prussia? What otherr liberty waa assailed ' 



1857.] WILLIAM I., KEGENT OF PRUSSIA. 561 

assisted tlie designs of the Church of Rome, more than most 
of the Catholic rulers. 

Placed between the disguised despotism of Napoleon III. 
and the open and arrogant despotism of Nicholas of Russia, 
Germany, for a time, seemed to be destined to a similar fate. 
The result of the Crimean war, and the liberal policy inaugu- 
rated by Alexander 11. in Russia , damped the hopes of the 
German absolutists, but failed to teach them wisdom. Prussia 
was practically governed by the interests of a class of nobles, 
whose absurd pride was only equalled by their ignorance of 
the age in which they lived. With all his wit and talent, 
Frederick William IV. was utterly blind to his position, and 
the longer he reigned the more he made the name of Prussia 
hated throughout the rest of Germany. 

But the fruits of the national movement in 1848 and 1849 
were not lost. The earnest efforts of those two years, the 
practical experience of political matters acquired by the liberal 
party, were an immense gain to the people. In every State 
there was a strong body of intelligent men, who resisted the 
reaction by all the legal means left them , and who , although 
discouraged, were still hopeful of success. The increase of 
general intelligence among the people, the growth of an in- 
dependent press , the extension of railroads which made the 
old system of passports and police supervision impossible, — 
all these were powerful agencies of progress; but only a few 
rulers of the smaller States saw this truth, and favored the 
liberal side. 

In October, 1857, Frederick William IV. was stricken 
with apoplexy, and his brother. Prince William, began to rule 
in his name. The latter, then 60 years old, had. grown up 
without the least prospect that he would ever wear the crown : 
although he possessed no brilliant intellectual qualities, he 
was shrewd, clear-sighted, and honest, and after a year's ex- 
perience of the policy which governed Prussia , he refused to 



What countries favored the priests, and how? What did the king of 
Prussia do? What threatened to be the fate of Germany? What discouraged 
the absolutists? Who practically governed in Prussia? What was the rule 
of Frederick William IV.? What had the German people gained? What still 
existed in every State? What other agencies of progress were there? What 
happened in October, 1857? 



562 



WILLIAM I., EEGENT OF PKUSSIA. 



[1S57. 



rule longer unless the whole power were placed in his hands. 
As soon as he was made Prince Regent, he dismissed the 




TTILLIAM I. 



feudalist Ministry of his brother and established a new and 
more liberal government. The hopes of the German people 
instantly revived: Bavaria was compelled to follow the example 



What was William's experience? Character? What did he do, as Prince 
Regent? 



1860] UNITY OF ITALY. 563 

of Prussia, the reaction against the national movement of 
1848 was interrupted everywhere, and the political horizon 
suddenly began to grow brighter. 

The desire of the people for a closer national union was 
so intense, that when, in June, 1859, Austria was defeated at 
Magenta and Solferino, aery ran through Germany: *'The 
Rhine must be defended on the Mincio!" and the demand for 
an alliance with Austria against France became so earnest and 
general, that Prussia would certainly have yielded to it, if 
Napoleon III. had not forestalled the movement by concluding 
an instant peace with Francis Joseph. When, in 1860, all 
Italy rose, and the dilapidated thrones of the petty rulers fell 
to pieces, as the people united under Victor Emanuel, the Ger- 
mans saw how hasty and mistaken had been their excitement 
of the year before. The interests of the Italians were identical 
with theirs, and the success of the former filled them with 
fresh hope and courage. 

Austria, after her defeat and the overwhelming success of 
the popular uprising in Italy, seemed to perceive the necessity 
of conceding more to her own subjects. She made some at- 
tempts to introduce a restricted form of constitutional govern- 
ment, which excited without satisfying the people. Prussia 
continued to advance slowly in the right direction, regaining 
her lost influence over the active and intelligent liberal, party 
throughout Germany. On the 2d of January, 1861, Frederick 
William IV. died, and William I. became King. From this date 
a new history begins. 



What change instantly took place? What new excitement seized the Ger- 
mans? What was threatened, and how prevented? What was shown by the 
union of Italy? What effect had it on the Germans? What did Austria at- 
tempt? How did Prussia advance? When did William I. become King? 



564 WILLIAM I., KING. [ISGl. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

THE STEUGGLE WITH AUSTRIA ; THE NOIITH-GERMAN TINION. 

(1861—1870.) 

Reorganization of the Prussian Army.— Movements for a New Union.— Eeac- 
tion in Prussia. — Bismarck appointed Minister. — His Unpopularity. — At- 
tempt of Francis Joseph of Austria.— "War in Schleswig-Holstein.— Quarrel 
oetweeu Prussia and Austria. — Alliances of Austria with the smaller States. 
— The Diet. — Prussia Declares War.— Hannover, Hesse and Saxony in- 
vaded. — Battle of Langensalza.— March into Bohemia.— Preliminary Vic- 
tories. — Halt at Gitchin. — Battle of Koniggratz.— Prussian Advance to the 
Danube. — Peace of Nikolsburg. — Bismarck's Plan. — Change in Popular 
Sentiment. — Prussian Annexations. — Foundation of the North -German 
Union.— The Luxemburg Affair. 

The first important measure which the government of 
William I. adopted was a thorough reorganization of the army. 
Since this could not be effected without an increased expense 
for the present and a prospect of still greater burdens in the 
future, the Legislative Assembly of Prussia refused to grant 
the appropriation demanded. The plan was to increase the 
time of service for the reserve forces, to diminish that of the 
militia, and enforce a sufficient amount of mili^iary training 
upon the whole male population, without regard to class or 
profession. At the same time a Convention of the smaller 
States was held in Wiirzburg, for the purpose of drawing up 
a new plan of union, in place of the old Diet, the provisions 
of which had been violated so often that its existence was be- 
coming a mere farce. 

Prussia proposed a closer military union under her own 
direction, and this was accepted by Baden, Saxe-Weimar and 
Coburg-Gotha : the other States were still swayed by the in- 
fluence of Austria. The political situation became more and 
more disturbed; William I. dismissed his liberal ministry and 



What measure did William I. advocate? Why did the Assembly refuse? 
What was the plan? Where was a Convention held? For what purpose? 
What did Prussia propose? What States accepted? Who influenced the 
others? 



1S62.] BISMARCK APPOINTED MINISTEE. 565 

appointed noted reactionists , who carried out his plan for 
reorganizing the army in defiance of the Assembly. Finally, 
in September, 1862, Baron Otto von Bismarck-Schonhausen, 
who had been Prussian ambassador in St. Petersburg and 
Paris, was placed at the head of the Government. This re- 
markable man, who was born in 1813, in Brandenburg, was 
already known as a thorough conservative, and considered to 
be one of the most dangerous enemies of the liberal and 
national party. But he had represented Prussia in the Diet 
at Frankfort in 1851, he understood the policy of Austria and 
the general political situation better than any other statesman 
in Germany, and his course, from the first day of receiving 
power, was as daring as it was skilfully planned. 

Even Metternich was not so heartily hated as Bismarck, 
when the latter continued the policy already adopted, of dis- 
regarding the will of the people, as expressed by the Prussian 
Assembly. Every new election for this body only increased 
the strength of the opposition, and with it the unpopularity 
of Prussia among the smaller States. The appropriations for 
the army were steadfastly refused, yet the government took 
the money and went on with the work of reorganization. 
Austria endeavored to profit by the confusion which ensued: 
after having privately consulted the other rulers, Francis 
Joseph summoned a Congress of German Princes to meet in 
Frankfort, in August, 1863, in order to accept an "Act of 
Reform," which substituted an Assembly of Delegates in place 
of the old Diet, but retained the presidency of Austria. Prussia 
refused to attend, declaring that the first step towards reform 
must be a Parliament elected by the people, and the scheme 
failed so completely that in another month nothing more was 
heard of it. 

Soon afterwards, Frederick YII. of Denmark died, and his 
successor. Christian IX., Prince of Gliicksburg, accepted a con- 
stitution which detached Schleswig from Holstein and incorpo- 



"What change of policy took place in Prussia? Who was appointed Minister, 
and when? What was he, and how regarded? What qualifications had he? 
How was he hated, and why? What were the results of this course? What 
measures did the Prussian government take? What movement did Austria 
make, and when? How was it thwarted? 



566 THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR. [1864. 

rated it with Denmark. This was in violation of the treaty 
made in London in 1852, and gave Germany a pretext for 
int-erference. On the 7th of December, 1863, the Diet decided 
to take armed possession of the Duchies : Austria and Prussia 
united in January, 1864, and sent a combined army of 43,000 
men under Prince Frederick Karl and Marshal Gablenz against 
Denmark. After several slight engagements the Danes aban- 
doned the "Dannewerk" — the fortified line across the Pen- 
insula, — and took up a strong position at Diippel. Here their 
entrenchments were stormed and carried by the Prussians, 
on the 18th of April: the Austrians had also been victorious 
at Oeversee, and the Danes were everywhere driven back. 
England, France and Russia interfered, an armistice was 
declared, and an attempt made to settle the question. The 
negotiations, which were carried on in London for that pur- 
pose, failed; hostilities were resumed, and by the 1st of August, 
Denmark was forced to sue for peace. 

On the 30th of October, the war was ended by the re- 
linquishment of the Duchies to Prussia and Austria, not to 
Germany. The Prince of Augustenburg, however, who be- 
longed to tlie ducal family of Holstein , claimed the territory 
as being his by right of descent, and took up his residence at 
Kiel, bringing all the apparatus of a little State Government, 
ready made, along with him. Prussia demanded the acceptance 
of her military system , the occupancy of the forts , and the 
harbor of Kiel for naval purposes. The Duke, encouraged by 
Austria, refused: a diplomatic quarrel ensued, which lasted 
until the 1st of August, 1865, when William L met Francis 
Joseph at Gastein, a watering-place in the Austrian Alps, and 
both agreed on a division, Prussia to govern in Schleswig and 
Austria in Holstein. 

Thus far, the course of the two powers in the matter had 
made them equally unpopular throughout the rest of Germany. 
Austria had quite lost her temporary advantage over Prussia, 



What happened in Denmark? How did this affect Germany? Belate what 
followed, and when. What was the first success? What other victories 
followed? Who interfered, and with what result? What was the end of the 
war? When and how was peace made? What did the Prince of Augusten- 
burg do? What did Prussia demand? What ensued? When and how waa 
the dispute settled? 



1S66.] AUSTKIA AND PRUSSIA AT WAE. 567 

in this respect, and she now endeavored to regain it by favor- 
ing the claims of the Duke of Augustenburg in Hoi stein. An 
angry correspondence followed, and early in 1866, Austria 
began to prepare for war, not only at home, but by secretly 
canvassing for alliances among the smaller States. Neither 
she, nor the German people, understood how her policy was 
aiding the deep-laid plans of Bismarck. The latter had been 
elevated to the rank of Count, he had dared to assert that the 
German question could never be settled without the use of 
"blood and steel" (which was generally interpreted as signify- 
ing the most brutal despotism), and an attempt to assassinate 
him had been made in the streets of Berlin. When, therefore, 
Austria demanded of the Diet that the military force of the 
other States should be called into the field against Prussia on 
account of the invasion of Flolstein by Prussian troops, only 
Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, the little Saxon principalities and 
the three free cities of the North voted against the measure ! 

This vote, which was taken on the 14th of June, 18(36, 
was the last act of the German Diet. Prussia instantly took 
the ground that it was a declaration of war, and set in motion 
all the agencies which had been quietly preparing for three or 
four years. The German people were stunned by the sudden- 
ness with which the crisis had been brought upon them. The 
cause of the trouble was so slight, so needlessly provoked, 
that the war seemed criminal: it was looked upon as the last 
desperate resource of the absolutist, Bismarck, who, finding the 
Prussian Assembly still five to one against him, had adopted 
this measure to recover by force his lost position. Few be- 
lieved that Prussia, with 19 millions of inhabitants, could be 
victorious over Austria and her allies, representing 50 millions, 
unless after a long and terrible struggle. 

Pi-ussia, however, had secured an ally which, although not 
fortunate in the war , kept a large Austrian army employed. 



How were both Austria and Prussia regarded? How did Austria try to 
become popular? How and when did she prepare for war? Whose plana 
was she aiding? What was Bismarck's position, at this time? What did 
Austria demand of the Diet? How was it received? When was this vote? 
What was it? What was done by Prussia? What was the feeling and belief, 
in Germany? What were thought to be the chances of the war? 

25 



568 BATTLE OF LANGENSALZA. 11866. 

This was Italy, which eagerly accepted the alliance in April, 
and began to prepare for the struggle. On the other hand, 
there was every probability that France would interfere in 
favor of Austria. In this emergency, the Prussian Government 
seemed transformed: it stood like a man aroused and fully 
alive, with every sense quickened and every muscle and sinew 
ready for action. The 14th of June brought the declaration 
of war: on the 15th, Saxony, Hannover, Hesse -Cassel and 
Nassau were called upon to remain neutral, and allowed 12 
hours to decide. As no answer came, a Prussian army 
from Holstein took posses*sion of Hannover on the 17th, an- 
other from the Rhine entered Cassel on the 19th, and on the 
latter day Leipzig and Dresden were occupied by a third. So 
complete had been the preparations that a temporary railroad 
bridge was made, in advance, to take the place of one between 
Berlin and Dresden, which it was evident the Saxons would 
destroy. 

The king of Hannover, with 18,000 men, marched south- 
ward to join the Bavarians, but was so slow in his movements 
that he did not reach Langensalza (15 miles north of Gotha) 
until the 23d of June. Rejecting an offer from Prussia, a 
force of about 9,000 men was sent to hold him in check. A 
fierce battle was fought on the 27th, in which the Hannoverians 
were victorious, but, during their delay of a single day, Prussia 
had pushed on new troops with such rapidity that they were 
immediately afterwards compelled to surrender. The soldiers 
were sent home, and the king, George Y., betook himself to 
Vienna. 

All Saxony being occupied, the march upon Austria fol- 
lowed. There were three Prussian armies in the field: the first, 
under Prince Frederick Karl, advanced in a south-eastern 
direction from Saxony, the second, under the Crown -Prince, 
Frederick William, from Silesia, and the third, under General 
Herwarth von Bittenfeld, followed the course of the Elbe. 



What ally had Prussia? What other chance had Austria? How did 
Prussia act? "What was the firat measure? W^hat events immediately foUowcd? 
How had Prussia prepared for the struggle? How, and witli what force, did 
the king of Hannover march? What battle was fought, and what followed it? 
What became of the king and his soldiers? What was the next movement? 
W hat were the three Prussian armies, and their lino of march? 



1566.] BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ. 569 

The entire force was 260,000 men, with 790 pieces of artillery. 
The Austrian army, now hastening towards the frontier, was 
about equal in numbers, and commanded by General Benedek. 
Count Clam-Gallas, with 60,000 men, was sent forward to 
meet Frederick Karl, but was defeated in four successive small 
engagements, from the 27th to the 29th of June, and forced 
to fall back upon Benedek's main army, while Frederick Karl 
and Herwarth, whose armies were united in the last of the 
four battles, at Gitchin, remained there to await the arrival of 
the Crown-Prince. 

The latter's task had been more difficult. On crossing the 
frontier, he was faced by the greater part of Benedek's army, 
and his first battle, on the 27th, at Trautenau, was a defeat. 
A second battle at the same place, the next day, resulted in a 
brilliant victory, after which he advanced, achieving further 
successes at Nachod and Skalitz, and on the 30th of June 
reached Koniginhof, a short distance from Gitchin. King 
William, Bismarck, Moltke and Boon arrived at the latter place 
on the 2d of July, and it was decided to meet Benedek, who 
wdth Clam-Gallas was awaiting battle near Koniggratz, with- 
out further delay. The movement was hastened by indications 
that Benedek meant to commence the attack, before the army 
of the Crown-Prince could reach the field. 

On the 3d of July the great battle of Koniggratz was 
fought. Both in its character and its results, it was very 
much like that of Waterloo. Benedek occupied a strong po- 
sition on a range of low hills beyond the little river Bistritz, 
with the village of Sadowa as his centre. The army of Fred- 
erick Karl formed the Prussian centre, and that of Herwarth 
the right wing: their position only differed from that of Wel- 
lington, at Waterloo, in the circumstance that they must 
attack instead of resist, and keep the whole Austrian army 
engaged until the Crown-Prince, like Bliicher, should arrive 
from the left and strike Benedek on the right flank. The 

Their combined strength? What was the Austrian force? "What general 
was sent forwards? With what result? Where did Frederick Karl and Her- 
warth wait? What was the Crown-Prince's march? What successes followed? 
Who united at Gitchin? When? What was decided? Why was the move- 
ment hastened? When was the battle fought? What other did it resemble? 
How was Benedek's army posted? What was the Prussian position? How 
did it differ from Wellington's? 



570 PEACE OF NIKOLSBURG. [1866. 

battle began at 8 in the morning, and raged with the greatest 
fury for six hours : again and again the Prussians hurled them- 
selves on the Austrian centre, only to be repulsed with heavier 
losses. Herwarth, on the right, gained a httle advantage; 
but the Austrian rifled cannon prevented a further advance. 
Violent rains and marshy soil delayed the Crown-Prince, as in 
Bliicher's case at Waterloo : the fate of the day was very 
doubtful until 2 o'clock in the afternoon, when the smoke of 
cannon was seen in the distance, on the Austrian right. The army 
of the Crown-Prince had arrived ! Then all the Prussian re- 
serves were brought up; an advance was made along the 
whole line: the Austrian right und left were broken, the centre 
gave way, and in the midst of a thunder-storm the retreat 
became a headlong flight. Towards evening, when the sun 
broke out, the Prussians saw Koniggratz before them: the 
King and Crown-Prince met on the battle-field, and the army 
struck up the same old choral which the troops of Frederick 
the Great had sung on the field of Leuthen. 

The next day the news came that Austria had made over 
Yenetia to France. This seemed like a direct bid for alliance, 
and the need of Tapid action was greater than ever. Within 
two weeks the Prussians had reached the Danube, and Vienna 
was an easy prey. In the meantime, the Bavarians and other 
allies of Austria had been driven beyond the river Main, 
Frankfort was in the hands of the Prussians, and a struggle, 
wliich could only have ended in the defeat of the former, com- 
menced at Wiirzburg. Then Austria gave way : an armistice, 
embracing the preliminaries of peace, was concluded at Nikols- 
burg on the 27th of July, and the SevenJWeeks' War came 
to an end. The treaty of peace, wEich was signed at Prague 
on the 23d of August, placed Austria in the background and 
gave the leadership of Germany to Prussia. 

It was now seen that the possession of Schleswig-Holstein 
was not the main object of the war. When Austria was com- 



How was the battle carried on? What happened on the German right? 
How was the Crown-Prince delayed? What happened in the afternoon? Wliat 
new movement was made? Describe the close of the battle. What news 
followed? Wliat was its effect? How did tlie Prussians advance? What was 
happening in Bavaria, at tlie same time? When and where did the war end? 
What did the Peace of Prague accomiilish? 



1SG7.] THE NOSTH-GERMAN UNION. 571 

pelled to recognize the formation of a North- Germ an Con- 
federation , which excluded her and her southern allies , but 
left the latter free to treat separately with the new power, 
the extent of Bismarck's plans became evident.. ''Blood and 
steel" had been used, but only to destroy the old constitution 
of Germany, and render possible a firmer national Union, the 
guiding influence of which was to be Prussian and Protestant, 
instead of Austrian and Catholic. 

An overwhelming revulsion of feeling took place. The 
proud, conservative, feudal party sank almost out of sight, in 
the enthusiastic support which the nationals and liberals gave 
to William I. and Bismarck. It is not likely that the latter 
had changed in character: personally, his haughty aristocratic 
impulses were no doubt as strong as ever; but, as a statesman, 
he had learned the great and permanent strength of the op- 
position, and clearly saw what immense advantages Prussia 
would acquire by a liberal policy. The German people, in 
their indescribable relief from the anxieties of the past four 
years — in their gratitude for victory and the dawn of a better 
future — soon came to believe that he had always been on their 
side. Before the year 1866 came to an end, the Prussian As- 
sembly accepted all the past acts of the Government which it 
had resisted, and complete harmony was reestablished. 

The annexation of Hannover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Schles- 
wig-Holstein and the City of Frankfort a-dded nearly 5,000,000 
more to the population of Prussia. The Constitution of the 
**North-German Union," as the new Confederation was called, 
was submitted to the other States in December, and accepted 
by all on the 9th of February, 1867. Its Parliament, elected 
by the people, met in Berlin immediately afterwards to discuss 
the articles of union, which were finally adopted on the 16th 
of April, when the new Power commenced its existence. It 
included all the German States except Bavaria, Wiirtemberg 
and Baden, 22 in number, and comprising a population of 



To what was Austria forced to submit? What was Bismarck's plan? What 
change of sentiment followed ? What was probably the cause of Bismarck's 
policy? How did the German people feel? What was afterwards done, in 
18()6? How was Prussia increased? When was the North -German UniOji 
established? When was the Constitution completed? 



572 THE LUXEMBUEG AFFAIR. [1S67. 

more than 30 millions, united under one military, postal, diplo- 
matic and financial system, like the States of the American 
Union. The king of Prussia was President of the whole, and 
Bismarck was elected Chancellor. About the same time Ba- 
varia, Wiirtemberg and Baden entered into a secret offensive 
and defensive alliance with Prussia, and the policy of their 
governments, thenceforth, was so conciliatory towards the 
North-German Union, that the people almost instantly forgot 
the hostility created by the war. 

In the spring of 1867, Napoleon III. took advantage of 
the circumstance that Luxemburg was practically detached 
from Germany by the downfall of the old Diet, and offered to 
buy it of Holland. The agreement was nearly concluded, when 
Bismarck in the name of the North-German Union, made such 
an energetic protest that the negotiations were suspended. 
A conference of the European Powers in London, in May, ad- 
judged Luxemburg to Holland, satisfying neither France nor 
Germany; but Bismarck's boldness and firmness gave im- 
mediate authority to the new Union. The people, at last, felt 
that they had a living, acting Government, not a mere con- 
glomeration of em^oty forms, as hitherto. 



What States were embraced? How united? Who were President and 
Chancellor? "What new alliance was formed? What change of policy followed? 
What happened in the spring of 1SG7? How was Napoleon's plan frustrated? 
What was settled in London? How was the German Union strengthened? 



1869.] CHANGES IN AUSTBIA. 673 



CHAPTER XL. 

THE WAil WITH FRANCE, AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GEIIM.AJ^ 
EMPIRE. — (1870—1871.) 

Changes in Austria. — Rise of Prussia. — Irritation of the French.— Napoleon III.'s 
Decline. — War Demanded. — The Pretext of the Spanish Throne.— Leopold 
of Hohenzollern. — The French Ambassador at Ems.— Franco Declares War, 
— Excitement of the People.— Attitude of Germany.— Three Armies in the 
Field.— Battle of Worth. — Advance upon Metz. — Battles of Mars-la-Tour 
and Gravelotte.— German Residents Expelled from France.— Mac Mahon's 
March Northwards.— Fighting on the Meuse.— Battle of Sedan. — Surrender 
of Napoleon III. and the Army. — Republic in France. — Hopes of the French 
People. — Surrenders of Toul, Strasburg and Metz. — Siege of Paris. — Defeat 
of the French Armies.- Battles of Le Mans. — Bourbaki's Defeat and Flight 
into Switzerland. — Surrender of Paris.— Peace. — Losses of France. — The 
German Empire Proclaimed. — William I. Emperor.— The Organization. — 
Present State of Germany.— The Rulers and the People. 

The experience of the next three years showed how com- 
pletely the new order of things was accepted by the great 
majority of the German people. Even in Austria, the defeat 
at Koniggratz and the loss of Yenetia were welcomed by the 
Hungarians and Slavonians, and hardly regretted by the Ger- 
man population, since it was evident that the Imperial Govern- 
ment mast give up its absolutist policy or cease to exist. In 
fact, the former Ministry was immediately dismissed: Count 
I^eust, a Saxon and a Protestant, was called to Vienna, and a 
series of reforms was inaugurated which did not terminate until 
the Hungariaas had won all they demanded in 1848, and the 
Germans and Bohemians enjoyed full as much liberty as the 
Prussians. 

The Seven AYeeks' War of 1866, in fact, was a phenomenon 
in history ; no nation ever acquired so much fame and influence 
in so short a time, as Prussia. The relation of the king, and 
especially of the statesman who guided him. Count Bismarck, 
towards the rest of Germany, was suddenly and completely 



What was shown in the next three years? How was the defeat regarded, 
in Austria? Who was made Minister? What changes foUowed? What was 
gained by the Seven Weeks' War? 



574 HOSTILITY OF FKANCE. [1SC9. 

changed. Napoleon III. was compelled to transfer Venetia to 
Italy, and thus his declaration in 1859 that "Italy should be 
free, from the Alps to the Adriatic," was made good, — but 
not by France. While the rest of Europe accepted the changes 
in Germany with equanimity, if not with approbation, the 
vain and sensitive people of France felt themselves deeply 
humiliated. Thus far, the policy of Napoleon III. had seemed 
to preserve the supremacy of France in European politics. 
He had overawed England, defeated Russia, and treated Italy 
as a magnanimous patron. But the best strength of Germany 
was now united under a new Constitution, after a war which 
made the achievements at Magenta, Solferino and in the Cri- 
mea seem tame. The ostentatious designs of France in Mexico 
came also to a tragic end in 1867, and her disgraceful failure 
there only served to make the success of Prussia, by contraijt, 
more conspicuous. 

The opposition to Napoleon III. in the French Assembly 
made use of these facts to increase its power. His own suoceiss 
had been due to good luck rather than to superior ability: 
he was now more than 60 years old, he had become cautious 
and wavering in his policy, and he undoubtedly saw how 
much would be risked in provoking a war with the North- 
German Union ; but the temper of the French people left him 
no alternative. He had certainly meant to interfere in 1866, 
had not the marvellous rapidity of Prussia prevented it. That 
France had no shadow of right to interfere, was all the ^ame 
to his people : they held him responsible for the creation of a 
new political Germany, wliich was apparently nearly as strong 
as France, and that was a thing not to be endured. He 
yielded to the popular excitement, and only waited for a 
pretext which might justify him before the world in declar- 
ing war. 

Such a pretext came in 1870. The Spaniards had ex- 



Wbose relations to Germany were clianged by it? What was Napoleon III. 
forced to do? "What wae the effect in Europe? In Frcuice? TVliat had hccn 
achieved by Napoleon III ? What by Germany ? What made the success of 
Prussia more conspicuous? What took place in the French Assembly? What 
was Napoleon's situation, and policy? What prevented him from interferini? 
in 1866? For what did tho French hold liim responsible? How was be 
forced to act? 



1S70.] FRANCE INSISTS ON WAE. 575 

pelled their Bourbon Queen, Isabella, in 1868, and were look- 
ing about for anew monarcli, from some other royal house. Their 
choice fell upon Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a distant re- 
lation of William I. of Prussia, but also nearly connected with 
the Bonaparte family through his wife, who was a daughter 
of tlie Grand-Duchess Stephanie Beauharnais. On the 6th of 
July, Napoleon's minister, the Duke de Grammont, declared to 
the French Assembly that this choice would never be tolerated 
by France. The French ambassador in Prussia, Benedetti, 
was ordered to demand of King William that he should pro- 
hibit Prince Leopold from accepting the offer. The king an- 
swered that he could not forbid what he had never advised ; 
but, immediately afterwards (on the 12th of July), Prince 
Leopold voluntarily declined, and all cause of trouble seemed 
to be removed. 

The French people, however, were insanely bent upon war. 
The excitement was so great, and so urgently fostered by the 
Empress Eugenie, the Duke de Grammont, and the army, that 
Napoleon IIL again yielded. A dispatch was sent to Bene- 
detti: "Be rough to the king!" The ambassador, who was at 
the baths of Ems, where William L was also staying, sought 
the latter on the public promenade and abruptly demanded 
that he should give France a guarantee that no member of 
the house of Hohenzollern should ever accept the throne of 
Spain. The ambassador's manner, even more than his demand, 
was insulting: the king turned upon his heel, and left liim 
standing. This was on the 13th of July: on the 15th the king 
returned to Berlin, and on the 19th France formally declared 
wan 

It was universally believed that every possible preparation 
had been made for this step. In fact, Marshal Le Boeuf as- 
sured Napoleon III. that the army was "more than ready," 
and an immediate French advance to the Rhine was antici- 
pated tliroughout Europe. Napoleon relied upon detaching 



When did a pretext come? What were the Spaniards seeking? Whom 
did they choose? What declaration was made? What did Benedetti demand? 
What was the king's answer? What took place next? Who urged war, in 
France? What order was sent to Benedetti? How did he ohey it? How did 
the king treat him? What followed? What was generally expected? 



576 THE FIRST MOVEMENTS. [1S70. 

the Southern German States from the Union, upon revolts in 
Hesse and Hannover, and finally, upon alliances with Austria 
and Italy. The French people were wild with excitement, 
which took the form of rejoicing: there was a general cry that 
Napoleon l.'s birth-day, the 15th of August, must be celebrated 
in Berlin. But the German people. North and South, arose 
as one man : for the first time in her history, Germany became 
one compact, national power. Bavarian and Hannoverian, 
Prussian and Hessian, Saxon and Westphalian joined hands 
and stood side by side. The temper of the people was solemn, 
but inflexibly firm : they did not boast of coming victory, but 
every one was resolved to die rather than see Germany a^ain 
overrun by the French. 

This time there were no alliances: it was simply Germany 
on one side and France on the other. The greatest military 
genius of our day, Moltke, had foreseen the war, no less than 
Bismarck, and was equally prepared. The designs of France 
lay clear, and the only question was to check them in their 
very commencement. In eleven days, Germany had 450,000 
soldiers, organized in three armies, on the way, and the French 
had not yet crossed the frontier! Further, there was a Ger- 
man reserve force of 112,000, w^iile France had but 310,000, 
all told, in the field. By the 2d of August, on w^hich day 
King William reached Mayence, three German armies (General 
Steinmetz on the North with 61,000 men. Prince Frederick 
Karl in the centre with 206,000, and the Crown -Prince 
Frederick William on the South with 180,000) stretched from 
Treves to Landau, and the line of the Rhine was already safe. 
On the same day. Napoleon HI. and his young son accompanied 
General Frossard, with 25,000 men, in an attack upon the 
unfortified frontier town of Saarbriick, which was defended by 
only 1800 Uhlans (cavalry). The capture of this little place 
was telegraphed to Paris, and received with the wildest re- 



Upon what did Napoleon III. rely? What did the French people hope? 
How did the Germans act? How did they unite? What was their feeling 9 
What were the two parties? Who else foresaw the struggle ? What was done 
by Germany, in 11 days? What reserve was there? What force had France ? 
Where were the German armies , on the 2d of August ? What else happened 
on the same day? 



578 



BATTLE or WORTH. 



[1870. 



joicings; but it was the only instance during the war when 
French troops stood upon German soil — unless as prisoners. 
On the 4:th the army of the Crown-Prince crossed the 
French frontier and defeated Marshal Mac Mahon's rif^ht wincf 
at Weissenburg. The old castle was stormed and taken by 
the Bavarians, and the French repulsed, after a loss of about 
1,000 on each side. Mac Mahon concentrated his whole force 
and occupied a strong position near the village of Worth, 



Maiillif 

o 



o 

Jouarille 



JJortcourt 




11 
^o shall 

rt'.rncirjllt* 



rioniillr 
O 
J^/arff/nif 
^ars la. Toiw 




Crurcloiie 
Jiezonrille 



BLETZ AND VICINITY, 



where he was again attacked on the 6th. The battle lasted 
13 hours and was fiercely contested: the Germans lost 10,000 
killed and wounded, the French 8,000, and 6,000 prisoners ; 
but when night came Mac Mahon's defeat turned into a panic. 
Part of his army fled towards the Yosges mountains, part 
towards Strasburg, and nearly all Alsatia was open to the 
victorious Germans. On the very same day, the army of 



How was this event regarded in France? What happened on the 4th? 
What success was achieved? Where and when was Mac Mahon attacked? 
Do6cril>e the battle. Where did the French retreat? 



1870.] GEKMAN ADVANCE UPON METZ. 579 

Steinmetz stormed the heights of Spicheren near Saarbriick, 
and won a splendid victory. This was followed by an imme- 
diate advance across the frontier at Forbach, and the capture 
of a great amount of supplies. 

Thus, in less than three weeks from the declaration of 
war, the attitude of France was changed from the agressive to 
the defensive, the field of war was transferred to French soil, 
and all Napoleon III.'s plans of alliance were rendered vain. 
Leaving a division of Baden troops to invest Strasburg, the 
Crown-Prince pressed forward with his main army, and in a 
few days reached Nancy, in Lorraine. The armies of the North 
and Centre advanced at the same time, defeated Bazaine on 
the 14th of August at Courcelles, and forced him to fall back 
upon Metz. He thereupon determined, after garrisoning the 
forts of Metz, to retreat still further, in order to unite with 
General Trochu, who was organizing a new army at Chalons, 
and with the remnants of Mac Mahon's forces. Moltke detected 
his plans at once, and the army of Frederick Karl was there- 
uj^on hurried across the Moselle, to get into his rear and pre- 
vent the junction. 

The struggle between the two commenced on the 16th, 
near the village of Mars-la-Tour, where Bazaine, with 180,000 
men, endeavored to force his way past Frederick Karl, who 
had but 120,000, the other two German armies being still in 
the rear. For six hours the latter held his position under a 
murderous fire, until three corps arrived to reinforce him. 
Bazaine claimed a victory, although he lost the southern and 
shorter road to Verdun ; but Moltke none the less gained his 
objeft. The losses were about 17,000 killed and wounded on 
each side. 

After a single day of rest, the struggle was resumed on 
the 18th, when the still bloodier and more desperate battle of 
Gravelotte was fought. The Germans now had about 200,000 
soldiers together, while Bazaine had 180,000, witli a great 



"What took place, the same day? What followed? How had the prospects 
changed in three weeks? How did the Crown-Prince advance? What hap- 
pened to Bazaine? What did he determine to do? How was his plan opposed? 
What took place on the 16th? What were the forces, on each side? What 
was Frederick Karl's success? What v/as claimed? What w^ere the losses? 
What other battle was fought, and when? 



580 BATTLE OF GKAVELOTTE. [1870. 

advantage in his position on a high j)lateau. In this battle, 
the former situation of the combatants was changed: the Ger- 
man lines faced eastward, the French westward — a circum- 
stance which made defeat more disastrous to either side. The 
strife began in the morning and continued until darkness put 
an end to it: the French right wing yielded after a succession 
of heroic assaults , but the centre and left wing resisted gal- 
lantly until the very close of the battle. It was a hard-won 
victory, adding 20,000 killed and wounded to the German 
losses, but it cut off Bazaine's retreat and forced him to take 
shelter behind the fortifications of Metz, the siege of which, 
by Prince Frederick Karl with 200,000 men, immediately 
commenced, while the rest of the German army marched on to 
attack Mac Mahon and Trochu at Chalons. 

There could be no question as to the bravery of the French 
troops in these two battles. In Paris the Government and 
people persisted in considering them victories, until the im- 
prisonment of Bazaine's army proved that their result was 
defeat. Then a wild cry of rage rang through the land: 
France had been betrayed, and by whom, if not by the Ger- 
man residents in Paris and other cities? The latter, more than 
100,000 in number, including women and helpless children, 
were expelled from the country under circumstances of extreme 
barbarity. The French people, not the Government, was res- 
ponsible for this act: the latter was barely able to protect 
the Germans from worse violence. 

Mac Mahon had in the meantime organized a new army 
of 125,000 men in the camp at Chalons, where, it was sup- 
posed, he would dispute the advance on Paris. This w^ his 
plan, in fact, and he was with difficulty persuaded by Marshal 
Palikao, the Minister of War, to give it up and undertake a 
rapid march up the Meuse, along the Belgian frontier, to re- 
lieve Bazaine in Metz. On the 28d of August, the Crown- 



What forces on each side? How was the position changed? What was 
the course of the battle? What was the end of it? What siege commenced? 
Wliat did the rest of the German array do ? What was the effect of these 
battles in Paris? What new excitement followed? Who were expelled from 
France? Upon whom rests the responsibility? What had Mao Mahon done? 
What was his plan, and how was it changed? 



1870.] 



MAC MAHON S MARCH. 



581 



Prince, who had already passed beyond Verdun on his way to 
Chalons, received intelligence that the French had left the 
latter place. Detachments of Uhlans, sent out in all liaste to 
reconnoitre, soon brought the astonishing news that Mac 




FIGHT BETWEEN UHIiANS AlTD FRENCH RIFIiEarEN. 



Mahon was marching rapidly northwards. Gen. Moltke de- 
tected his plan, which could only be thwarted by the most 
vigorous movement on the part of the German forces. The 
front of the advance was instantly changed, reformed on the 
right flank, and all pushed northwards by forced marches. 

Mac Mahon had the outer and longer line, so that, in spite 
of the rapidity of his movements, he was met by the extreme 



"When did news of his movement reach the Germans ? 
tained? How was the German advance changed? 



What was aecer' 



582 



FIGHTING ON THE MEUSE. 



[1870. 



right wing of the German army on the 28th of August, at 
Stenay on the Meuse. Being here held in check, fresh divisions 
were hurried against him, several small engagements followed, 
and on the 31st he was defeated at Beaumont by the Crown- 




BISHASOE. 



Prince of Saxony. The German right was thereupon pushed 
beyond the Meuse and occupied the passes of the Forest of 
Ardennes, leading into Belgium. Meanwhile the German left, 
under Frederick William, was rapidly driving back the French 
right and cutting off the road to Paris. Nothing was left to 
Mac Malion but to concentrate his forces and retire upon the 
small fortified city of Sedan. Napoleon III., who had leffc 



When and where was Mac Mahon met? What followed? How did the 
German right and left wings then move? What was Mac Mahon compelled 
to do? 



18T0.] 



BATTLE OF SEDAN. 



583 



Metz before the battle of Mars-la-Tour, and did not dare to 
return to Paris at such a time, was with him. 

The Germans, now numbering 200,000, lost no time in 
planting batteries on all the heights which surround the valley 
of the Meuse, at Sedan , like the rim of an irregular basin. 




THE CASTIiB OF BELLEVUE. 



Mac Mahon had 112,000 men, and his only change of success 
was to break through the wider ring which inclosed him, at 
some point where it was weak. The battle began at 5 o'clock 
on the morning of September 1st. The principal struggle 
was for the possession of the villages of Bazeilles and Illy, 
and the heights of Daigny. Mac Mahon was severely wounded, 



Where was Napoleon III.? How was the German army stationed? 
force had Mac Mahon, and what was his plan? 



What 



584 SURRENDER OF NAPOLEON III. [1870. 

soon after the fight began; the command was then given to 
General Ducrot and afterwards to General Wimpffen, who 
knew neither the ground nor the plan of operations. The 
German artillery fire was fearful, and the French infantry- 
could not stand before it, while their cavalry was almost anni- 
hilated during the afternoon, in a succession of charges on the 
Prussian infantry. 

By 3 o'clock, it was evident that the French army was 
defeated: driven back from every strong point which was 
held in the morning, hurled together in a demoralized mass, 
nothing was left but surrender. Gen. Lauriston appeared 
with a white flag on the walls of Sedan, and the terrible fire 
of the German artillery ceased. Napoleon III. wrote to King 
William: *'Not having been able to die at the head of my 
troops, I lay my sword at your Majesty^s feet," — and retired 
to the castle of Bellevue, outside of the city. Early the next 
morning he had an interview with Bismarck at the little vil- 
lage of Donchery, and then formally surrendered to the king 
at Bellevue.* 

During the battle, 25,000 French soldiers had been taken 
prisoners: the remaining 83,000, including 4,000 officers, sur- 
rendered on the 2d of September: 400 cannon, 70 mitrailleuses, 
and 1100 horses also fell into the hands of the Germans. Never 
before, in history, had such a host been taken captive. The 
news of this overwhelming victory electrified the world: Ger- 
many rang with rejoicings, and her emigrated sons in America 
and Australia joined in the jubilee. The people said : "It will be 
another Seven Weeks' War," and this hope might possibly 
have been fulfilled, but for the sudden poHtical change in 
France. On the 4th (two days after the surrender), a revo- 
lution broke out in Paris, the Empress Eugenie and the mem- 
bers of her government fled, and a Republic was declared. 
The French, blaming Napoleon alone for their tremendous 
national humiliation, believed that they could yet recover their 



Describe the battle of Sedan. What was tlie situation of the French, iu 
the afternoon? How was the offer of surrender made? When and where did 
Napoleon III. surrender? What were the German spoils of war? What effect 
liad the victory? What did the people say? What prevented it? What took 
place in Paris? 

♦ The illustration is an exact representation of this event. 



1S70.] 



NAPOLEON in. S SUKRENDER. 



585 







586 SUEEENDEK OF METZ. [ISTOl 

lost ground; and when one of their prominent leaders, the 
statesman Jules Favre, declared that "not one foot of soil, not 
one stone of a fortress" should be yielded to Germany, the 
popular enthusiasm knew no bounds. 

But it was too late. The great superiority of the military 
organization of Prussia had been manifested against the re- 
gular troops of France, and it could not be expected that new 
armies of volunteers, however brave and devoted, would be 
more successful. The army of the Crown-Prince marched on 
towards Paris without opposition, and on the 17th of Sep- 
tember came in sight of the city, which was defended by an 
outer circle of powerful detached fortresses, constructed dur- 
ing the reign of Louis Philippe. Gen. Trochu was made 
military governor, with 70,000 men — the last remnant of the 
regular army — under his command. He had barely time to 
garrison and strengthen the forts, when the city was sur- 
rounded, and the siege commenced. 

For two months thereafter, tjie interest of the war is cen- 
tred upon sieges. The fortified city of Toul, in Lorraine, sur- 
rendered on the 23d of September, Strasburg, after a six 
weeks' siege, on the 28th, and then the two lines of railway 
communication between Germany and Paris were secured. 
All the German reserves were called into the field, until, 
finally, more than 800,000 soldiers stood upon French soil. 
After two or three attempts to break through the lines, 
Bazaine surrendered Metz on the 28th of October. It 
was another event without a parallel in military history. 
Three Marshals of France, 6,000 officers, 145,000 unwounded 
soldiers, 73 eagles, 854 pieces of artillery, and 400,000 
Chassepot rifles, were surrendered to Prince Frederick Karl! 

After these successes, the capture of Paris became only 
a question of time. Although the Republican leader, Gam- 
betta, escaped from the city in a balloon, and by his fiery 
eloquence aroused the people of Central and Southern France, 



How did the French people act ? Wliat was said by Jules Favre? "Why- 
was the hope of France a vain one? When did the Crown-Prinoe reach 
Paris? How was the city defended ? Who was commander? What force had 
he? What surrenders took place in September? How many German soldiers 
were called to France? When was Metz surrendered? What was given up 
by Bazaine? 



1870.] 



THE SIEGE OF PARIS. 



587 



every plan for raising the siege of Paris failed. The French 
volunteers were formed into three armies — that of the North, 




AEKIVAL OP FEENOH PEISOSEBS IN MAYENCB. 

under Faidherbe; of the Loire, under Aurelles de Paladine 
(afterwards under Chanzy and Bourbaki); and of the East, 



Who aroused the people of France? 



588 NEW FEENCH AKMIES. PSTO. 

under Keratiy. Besides, a great many companies oi franc- 
tireurs, or independent sharp-shooters, were organized to 
interrupt the German communications, and they gave much 




MOLTKE. 



more trouble than the Larger armies. About the end of No- 
vember a desperate attempt was made to raise the siege of 
Paris. General Paladine marched from Orleans with 150,000 
men, while Trochu tried to break the lines of the besiegers on 

What armies were formed? What other troops organized? 



1871.] EETEEAT OP BOURBAKI. 589 

the eastern side. The hatter was repelled, after a bloody fight : 
the former was attacked at Beaune la Rolande, by Prince Fred- 
erick Karl, with only half the number of troops, and most 
signally defeated. The Germans then carried on the winter 
campaign with the greatest vigor, both in the Northern pro- 
vinces and along the Loire, and Trochu, with his 400,000 
men, made no further serious effort to save Paris. 

Frederick Karl took Orleans on the 5th of December, ad- 
vanced to Tours, and finally, in a six days' brittle, early in 
January, 1871, at Le Mans, literally cut the Army of the 
Loire to pieces. The French lost 60,000 in killed, wounded 
and prisoners. Faidherbe was defeated in the North, a week 
afterwards, and the only resistance left was in Burgundy, 
where Garibaldi (who hastened to France after the Republic 
was proclaimed) had been successful in two or three small en- 
gagements, and was now replaced by Bourbaki. The object 
of the latter was to relieve the fortress of Belfort, then be- 
sieged by General Werder, who, with 43,000 men, awaited 
his coming in a strong position among the mountains. Not- 
withstanding Bourbaki had more than 100,000 men, he was 
forced to retreat, after a fight of three days, and then General 
Manteuffel, who had been sent in all haste to strengthen 
Werder, followed him so closely that on the 1st of February, 
all retreat being cut off, his whole army of 83,000 men crossed 
Ihe Swiss frontier, and after suffering terribly among the 
snowy passes of the Jura, were disarmed, fed and clothed by 
the Swiss government and people. Bourbaki attempted to 
commit suicide, but only inflicted a severe wound, from which 
he afterwards recovered. 

This retreat into Switzerland was almost the Inst event of 
the Seven Months' War^ as it might be called, and it was as 
remarkable as the surrenders of Sedan and Metz. All power 
of defence was now broken: France was completely at the 



What happened, at the end of November? How was the plan frustrated? 
How was the winter campaign carried on? What did Frederick Karl ac- 
complish, and when? What were the French losses ? Where was the only- 
resistance left ? How did Werder await Bourbaki? What was the latter's 
luck? What was the end of Bourbaki's campaign? How was he received in 
Switzerland? What did Bourbaki attempt? What was this retreat into 
Switzerland ? 



590 



SUEEENDER OF PAEIS. 



[1871. 



mercy of her conquerors. On the 28th of January, afCbr long 
negotiations between Bismarck and Jules Favre, the forts 
around Paris capitulated and Trochu's army became prisoners 
of war. The city was not occupied, but, for the sake of the 




BOUKBAKl'S EETEEAT INTO SWITZEELAND. 

half-starved population, provisions were allowed to enter. The 
armistice, originally declared for three weeks, was prolonged 
until March 1st, when the preliminaries of peace were agreed 
upon, and hostilities came to an end. 



When and how did Paris capitulate? How was the population treated? 
"When did hostilities cease? 



1871.] THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 591 

By the final treaty of Peace, which was concluded at 
Frankfort on the 10th of May, 1871, France gave up Alsatia 
with all its cities and fortresses except Belfort, and German 
Lorraine, including Metz and Thionville, to Germany. The 
territory thus transferred contained about 5,500 square miles 
and 1,580,000 inhabitants. France also agreed to pay an in- 
demnity of five thousand millions of francs, in instalments, 
certain of her departments to be occupied by German troops, 
and only evacuated by degrees, as the payments were made. 
Thus ended this astonishing war, during which 17 great 
battles and 156 minor engagements had been fought, 22 forti- 
fied places taken, 385,000 soldiers (including 11,360 officers) 
made prisoners, and 7,200 cannon and 600,000 stand of arms 
acquired by Germany. There is no such crushing defeat of a 
strong nation recorded in history. 

Even before the capitulation of Paris the natural political 
result of the victory was secured to Germany. The coopera- 
tion of the three Southern States in the war removed the last 
barrier to a union of all except Austria under the lead of Prus- 
sia. That which the great majority of the people desired was 
also satisfactory to the princes: the "Xorth- German Union" 
was enlarged and transfm-med into the "German Empire," by 
including Bavaria, Wiirtemberg and Baden. It was agreed 
that the young king of Bavaria, Ludwig II., as occupying the 
most important position among the rulers of the three separate 
States, should ask King William to assume the Imperial 
dignity, with the condition that it should be hereditary in his 
family. The other princes and the free cities united in the 
call; and on the 18th of January, 1871, in the grand hall of 
the palace of Versailles, where Eichelieu and Louis XIV. and 
Napoleon I. had plotted their invasions of Germany, the king 
formally accepted the title of Emperor, and the German 
States were at the last united as one compact, indivisible 
Nation. 

The Emperor William concluded his proclamation to the 



When and where was peace concluded? AVhat did France give up? How 
many square miles and inhabitants? What indemnity was agreed upon? 
What are the statistics of the war? How did Germany become united? How 
was the "North-German Union" transformed? How, and by whom, was the 
Empire demanded? When, and where, was it proclaimed? 
26 



592 CONDITION OF GEKMANY. [1S71. 

German People with these words : ''May God permit us, and 
our successors to the Imperial crown, to give at all times in- 
crease to the German Empire, not by the conquests of war, 
but by the goods and gifts of peace, in the path of national 
prosperity, freedom and morality!" After the end of the war 
was assured, he left Paris, and passed in a swift march of 
triumph through Germany to Berlin, where the popular enthu- 
siasm was extravagantly exhibited. Four days afterwards he 
called together the first German Parliament (since 1849), and 
the organization of the new Empire was immediately com- 
menced. It was simply, in all essential points, a renewal of 
the North- German Union. The Imperial Government intro- 
duced a general military, naval, financial, postal and diplo- 
matic system for all the States, a uniformity of weights, 
measures and coinage, — in short, a thoroughly national union 
of locally independent States, all of which are embraced in a 
name which is no longer merely geographical — Gekmany. 

Here, then, the History of the Kace ceases, and that of 
the Nation begins. In 1848, the people dreamed of achieving 
Unity through Liberty: in 1870 they conquered Liberty 
through Unity. Both experiences were necessary, and if 
they have not yet yielded all that wi»s hoped in some respects, 
in others they have compressed the usual growth of a century 
into a few years. Some of the States, such as Oldenburg and 
the Mecklenburgs, still restrict the natural rights of the people : 
even in Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria there is a strong reac- 
tionary party; and the reigning families cannot forget the tradi- 
tions of the Past. The Emperor William has but a moderate 
admiration for a Constitutional Government, but the whole 
people have faith in his honesty and prudence. Bismarck, 
Prince, Chancellor of the Empire, and the acknowledged first 
statesman of Europe, is rather a liberal from poHcy than from 
principle; yet even he sees that no considerable step backward 



What proclamation did the Emperor William issue? How was he received 
in Germany? When was the Parliament called? What was the new Empire? 
Describe its character. What are the States now called? How is the History 
of Germany changed? What is the difference ])etween 1848 and 1870? What 
States are still behind the time? WJiere is the Reaction still strong? How 
is the Emperor regarded? 



ISTl.] CONDITION OP GERMANY. 593 

IS longer possible. The smaller princes and ministers accept 
the situation, which leaves them at least their places, if it 
diminishes their former importance. The people, finally, res- 
tored to confidence in themselves, enjoying the best system of 
education in the world, relieved from the antiquated restrictions 
upon labor, migration and the business of life, and slowly 
acquiring a broader political knowledge to fit them for their 
participation in government, are stronger, freer, happier and 
more hopeful than they have ever been before. 

What is Bismarck's position? What of the smaller princes? What is the 
present condition of the people? 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF GERMAN HISTORY. 



The history of Germany is generally divided into Five Periods, as 
follows : 



I. — From the earliest accounts to the empire of Charlemagne. 

II — From Charlemagne to the downfall of the Hohenstaufens. 
III. — From the Interregnum to the Keformation. 
IV. — From the Keformation to the Peace of Westphalia. 

V. — From the Peace of Westphalia to the present time. 

Some historians subdivide these periods, or change their limits ; but 
there seems to be no other form of division so simple, natural, and easily 
borne in the memory. While retaining it, however, in the chronological 
table which follows, we shall separate the different dynasties which gov. 
erned the German Empire, up to the time of the Interregnum, which is 
removed, by an irregular succession during two centuries, from the per- 
manent rule of the Hapsburg family. 

FIRST PERIOD. (B. C. 103-A. D. 768.) 
Primitive History. 

B. 0. 

113. The Cimbrians and Teutons invade Italy. 

102. Marius defeats the Teutons. 

101. Marius defeats the Cimbrians. 

58. Julius Ciesar defeats Ariovistus. 

65-53. Caesar twice crosses the Rhine. 

12-9. Campaigns of Drusus in Northern Germany. 

A. D. 

9. Defeat of Yarus by Hermann. 

14-16. Campaigns of Germanicus. 

21. Death of Hermann. 

69. Revolt of Claudius Civilis. 

98. Tacitus writes his " Germania." 



596 CnKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GERMAN HISTORY. 

166-181. War of the Marcomanni against Marcus Aurelius. 

200-250. Union of the German tribes under new names. 

276. Probus invades Germany. 

358. Julian defeats the Alemanni. 

358-378. Bishop Ulfila converts the Goths to Christianity. 

The Migrations of the Eaces. 

375. The coming of the Huns. 

378. The Emperor Yalens defeated by the Visigoths. 

395. Theodosius divides the Koman Empire. 

396. Alaric's invasion of Greece. 
403. Alaric meets Stilicho in Italy. 

406. Stilicho defeats the German hordes at Fiesole. 

410. Alaric takes Rome. 

411. Alaric dies in Southern Italy. 

412. Ataulf leads the Visigoths to Gaul. 

429. The Vandals, under Geiserich, invade Africa. 

449. The Saxons and Angles settle in England. 

450. March of Attila to Gaul ; battle of Chalons. 
452. Attila in Italy. 

455. Rome devastated by Geiserich and the Vandals. 

476. The Roman Empire overthrown by Odoaker. 

481-511. Chlodwig, King of the Franks. 

486. End of the Roman rule in Gaul. 

493. Theodoric and his Ostrogoths conquer Italy. 

500. Chlodwig defeats the Burgundians. 

526. Death of Theodoric the Great. 
527-565. Reign of Justinian. 

527. The Franks coequer Thiiringia. 
532. The Franks conquer Burgundy. 

534. Belisarius overthrows the Vandal power in Africa. 

552. Extermination of the Ostrogoths by Narses. 

Kingdom of the Franks. 

658-561. Reign of Clotar, King of the Franks. 

568. Alboin leads the Longobards to Italy. 

590-604. Spread of Christianity under Pope Gregory the Great. 

590-597. Wars of Tredegunde and Brunhilde. 

613. Murder of Brunhilde. 

613-622. Clotar II., King of the Franks. 

650. Pippin of Landeu, steward to the royal household. 

087. Pippin of neristall 



CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GERMAN HISTOEY. 597 

711. The Saracens conquer Spain from the Visigoths. 

'732. Karl Martel defeats the Saracens at Tours. 

741. Death of Karl Martel ; Pippin the Short. 

745. Winfried (Bonifacius), Archbishop of Mayence. 

752. Pippin the Short becomes King of the Franks. 

754. Pippin founds the temporal power of the Popes. 

755. Bonifacius slain in Friesland. 

768. Death of Pippin ; his sons, Karl and Karloman. 

SECOND PERIOD. (768-1254.) 

The Carolingian Dynasty. 

771. Karl (Charlemagne) sole ruler. 

772-803. His wars with the Saxons. 

774-775. March to Italy ; overthrow of the Lombard kingdom. 

777-778. Charlemagne's invasion of Spain. 

788. Tassilo, Duke of Bavaria, deposed. 

789. War with the Wends, east of the Elbe. 
791. War with the Avars, in Hungary. 

800. Charlemagne crowned Emperor in Rome. 

814. Death of Charlemagne. 

814-840. Ludwig the Pious. 

843. Partition of Yerdun. 

843-876. Ludwig the German. 

879. The kingdom of Arelat (Lower Burgundy) founded. 

884-887. Karl the Fat unites France and Germany. 

887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia. 

891. Arnulf defeats the Norsemen in Belgium. 

900-911. Ludwig the Child. 

911-918. Konrad L, the Frank, King of Germany. 

" Wars with the Hungarians. 

The Saxon Emperors. 

919-936. King Henry L, of Saxony (the Fowler). 

928. Victory over the Wends. 

933. Great victory over the Hungarians, near Merseburg. 

" Upper and Lower Burgundy united as one kingdom. 

936-973. Otto L, the Great. 

939. Otto subjects the German dukes. 

952. Rebellion against his rule. 

955. The Hungarians defeated on the Lech. 

962. Otto renews the empire of Charlemagne. 



598 CHBONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GERMAN niSTORY. 

973-983. Otto II. 

982. His defeat by the Saracens. 

983-1002. Otto III. ; decline of the imperial power. 

1002-1024. Henry II. ; increasing power of the bishops. 

1016. The Normans settle in Southern Italy. 

Tlie Frank Emperors, 

1024-1039. Konrad II., Emperor. 

1026. His visit to Kome ; friendship with Canute the Great. 

1033. Burgundy attached to the German Empire. 

1039-1056. Henry III. ; Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, subject to the 
empire. 

1046. Synod of Sutri ; Henry III. removes three Popes. 

" The " Congregation of Cluny ; " the " Peace of God.'' 

1054. Pope Leo IX. captured by the Normans. 

1056-1106. Henry lY. 

1062. Henry lY.'s abduction by Bishop Hanno. 

1073. Revolt of the Saxons. 

1073. Hildebrand becomes Pope as Gregory YII. 

1076. Henry lY. deposes the Pope, and is excommunicated. 

1077. Henry lY.'s humiliation at Canossa. 
1081. Death of the Anti-King, Rudolf of Suabia. 

1084. Henry lY. in Rome ; ravages of the Normans. 

1085. Death of Pope Gregory YII. 
1092. Revolt of Konrad, son of Henry lY. 
1095. The first Crusade. 

1099. Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Bouillon. 

1105. Rebellion of Henry, son of Henry lY. 

1106-1125. Henry Y. 

1111. He imprisons Pope Paschalis II. 

1113. Defeat ot the Saxons. 

1115. He is defeated by the Saxons. 

1118. Orders of knighthood founded. 

1122. The Concordat of Worms. 

1125. Rise of the Hohcnstaufens. 

1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, Emperor. 

1134. The North-mark given to Albert the Bear. 

1138. Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony. 

The Hohenstaufen Emperors. 

] 138-1152. King Konrad III. ; Guelfs and Ghibellines. 

1142. Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTORY. 599 

1142, Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg. 

1147. The second Crusade. 

1152-1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa. 

1154. His coronation in Rome ; Arnold of Brescia. 

1159. Pope Alexander III. 

1162. Barbarossa destroys Milan. 

1163. Union of the Lombard cities. 
1176. Barbarossa's defeat at Legnano. 

11'7Y. Reconciliation with the Pope at Venice. 

1179. Otto of Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria. 

1181. Henry the Lion banished. 

1183. The Peace of Constance. 

1190. The third Crusade; death of Barbarossa; foundation of the 
German Order. 

1190-11 9 Y. Henry YI. (receives also Xaples and Sicily), 

1192. Richard of the Lion-Heart imprisoned. 

1195. Death of Henry the Lion. 

1197-1208. Philip of Suabia ; Otto IV. of Brunswick rival Emperor; 
civil wars. 

1208. Murder of Philip of Suabia. 

1212. Frederick IL, Hohenstaufen, comes to Germany. 

1215-1250. Frederick IL's reign. 

1226. The German Order occupies Prussia. 

1227. Frederick II. excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. 

1228. The fourth Crusade, led by Frederick II. 
1235. Rebellion of Frederick's son, Henry. 
1237. Frederick II.'s victory at Cortenuovo. 

1245. Pope Innocent lY. excommunicates the Emperor. 

1247. Death of Henry Raspe, Anti-Emperor. 

1250. Foundation of the Hanseatic League. 

1250-1254. Konrad lY. 

1254. Union of cities of the Rhine. 

1256. Death of William of Holland, Anti-Emperor. 

1266. Battle of Benevento ; death of King Manfred. 

1268. Konradin's march to Italy, defeat, and execution. 

THIRD PERIOD. (1254-1517.) 
Emperors of Various Houses. 

1256. Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso of Castile elected. 

1273-1291. Rudolf of Hapsburg, Emperor. 

1278. Defeat of King Ottokar of Bohemia. 

1291-1298. Adolf of Nassau. 



300 



CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTORY. 



1291. Union of three Swiss Cantons. 

1298. Albert of Austria defeats and slays Adolf of Nassau. 

1298-1308. Albert I. of Austria. 

1808. He is murdered by John Parrieida. 

1308-1313. Henry YII. of Luxemburg. 

1308. The Papacy removed from Rome to Avignon. 

1310. Henry YII.'s son, Johu, King of Bohemia. 

1313. Henry YII. poisoned in Italy. 

13 14-134 Y. Ludwig the Bavarian. 

1314-1330. Frederick of Austria, Anti-Emperor. 

1315. Battle of Morgarten. 

1322. Ludwig's victory at Miihldorf. 

1324. He gets possession of Brandenburg. 

1327. His journey to Rome ; Pope John XXII. deposed. 

1338. Convention of German princes at Rense. 

1346. The Pope declares Ludwig deposed, and appoints Karl IV. 

of Bohemia. 

1347. Death of Ludwig the Bohemian. 
1347-1378. Karl lY. (Luxemburg). 

1348. Giinther of Schwarzburg, Anti-Emperor. 
1 1344. Invention of gunpowder. 

1356. Proclamation of " The Golden Bull." 

1363. Tyrol annexed to Austria. 

1368. The Hanseatic League defeats Waldemar III. of Denmark. 

1373. Karl lY. acquires Brandenburg. 

1377. War of Suabian cities with Count Eberhard. 

1378-1418. Schism in the Catholic Church. 

1378-1400. Wenzel of Bohemia (Luxemburg). 

1386. Battle of Sempach. 

1388. War of the Suabian cities. 

1400. Wenzel deposed. 

1400-1410. Rupert of the Palatinate. 

1409. The Council of Pisa. 

1410. The Gennan Order defeated by the Poles. 

1411. Three Emperors and three Popes at the same time. 
1411. Frederick of HohenzoUern receives Brandenburg. 

1411-1437. Sigismund of Bohemia. 

1414-1418. The council at Constance. 

1415. Martyrdom of Huss. 

1418. End of the schism ; Martin Y., Pope. 

1419-1436. The Hussite wars ; Ziska ; Procopius. 

1431-1449. Council of Basel. 

1437. Death of Sigismund. 



OHEONOLOGIOAL TABLE OF GERMAN KISTOEY. 601 

The Hapsburg Emperors. 
1438-1439. Albert II. of Austria; beginning of the uninterrupted suc- 
cession of the Hapsburgs. 
1440-1493. Frederick III. 

1444. Battle of St. James. 
/ 1450. Invention of printing. 

1453. Constantinople taken by the Turks. 
1466. Treaty of Thorn ; Prussia tributary to Poland. 
1474. War with Charles the Bold of Burgundy. 
1476. Battles of Grandson and Morat. 

14'7'7! Death of Charles the Bold ; marriage of Maximilian of Aus- 
tria and Mary of Burgundy. 
1486-1325. Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. 
1493-1516. Maxunilian I. 

1495. Perpetual peace declared ; the imperial court. 
1512. Division of Germany into districts. 

FOURTH PERIOD. (1517-1648.) 

Tlie Eeformation. 

1483. Martin Luther born. 

1502. He enters the University of Erfurt. 

1508. Is appointed professor at Wittenberg. 

1510. Luther's journey to Rome. 

151Y. Luther nails his ninety-five theses, against the sale of in- 
dulgences, to the church-door in Wittenberg. 

1518. Interview with Cajetanus in Augsburg. 

1519. Interview with Miltitz in Altenburg. 

1520. Luther burns the Pope's Bull. 
1520-1556. Charles Y., Emperor. 

1521. Luther at the Diet of Worms; his concealment. 

1522. His return to Wittenberg. 

1524. Ferdinand of Austria and the Bavarian dukes unite against 

the Reformation. 

1525. The Peasants' War. 

1525-1532. John the Steadfast, Elector of Saxony. 

1525. Albert of Brandenberg joins the Reformers; end of the 

German Order ; battle of Pavia. 

1526. Ferdinand of Austria inherits Hungary and Bohemia. 

1526. The League of Torgau. 

1527. War of Charles Y. against Francis L and the Pope; Rome 

taken by the Constable de Bourbon. 



C02 CHKOXOLOGICAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTOEY. 

1529. Peace of Chambray; Diet of Speyer ; the name of *' Prot- 

estants ; " Luther meets Zwingli ; Vienna besieged by the 
Turks ; Charles Y. crowned at Bologna. 

1530. Diet of Augsburg ; the " Augsburg Confession." 

1531. League of Schmalkalden. 

1532. Keligious Peace of Nuremberg. 
1532-1554. John Frederick, Elector of Saxony. 

1534. Duke Ulric of Wiirtemberg joins the Protestants. 
1536-1538. Charles Y.'s third war with Francis L 

1 1540. Ignatius Loyola founds the Order of Jesuits. 
1542-1544. Charles Y.'s fourth war with Francis L 
1545-1563. The Council of Trent. 

1546. Death of Luther; the Schmalkalden War; treachery of 

Maurice of Saxony. 
154Y. Battle of Miihlberg; capture of John Frederick of Saxony; 

Philip of Hesse imprisoned. 
1548. The Augsburg *' Interim." 

1552. Maurice of Saxony marches against Charles Y. ; Henry II. 

of France takes Toul, Metz, and Yerdun. 

1553. Death of Maurice of Saxony. 

1555. The religious Peace of Augsburg. 

1556. Abdication of Charles Y. 
1556-1564. Ferdinand L 

1558. Death of Charles Y. 

1560. Death of Melanchthon. 

1564-1579. Maximilian IL 

156Y. Grumbach's rebellion. 

1576-1612. Rudolf n. 

1581. Rise of the Netherlands against Spain. 

1606. Rudolf II.'s brother, Mathias, rules in Austria. 

1608. The " Protestant Union " founded. 

1609. The " Catholic League " founded; "War of the Succession 

of Cleves." 
1612-1619. Mathias, Emperor. 

1614. End of the " War of the Succession of Cleves." 

The Thirty Years' War. 

1618. Outbreak in Prague. 
1619-1637. Ferdinand IL ; Frederick Y. of the Palatinate chosen King 
of Bohemia. 
1620. Battle near Prague; flight of Frederick Y. 

1622. Yictories of Tilly in Baden. 

1623. Tilly defeats Prince Christian of Brunswick. 



CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTOET. 603 

1624. Union of the northern states. 

1625. Christian IV. of Denmark appointed commander ; Wallen- 

stein enters the field. 

1626. Defeat of Mansfeld by Wallenstein ; defeat of Christian lY. 

by Tilly. 

1628. Wallenstein's siege of Stralsund. 

1629. The "Edict of Kestitution.'* 

1630. Diet in Ratisbon; Wallenstein removed ; Richelieu helps the 

Protestants ; Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden lands in 
Germany. 

1631. Tilly destroys Magdeburg; Gustavus Adolphus defeats Tilly 

and marches to Frankfort. 

1632. Death of Tilly ; Gustavus Adolphus in Munich ; his attack 

on Wallenstein's camp ; battle of Llitzen, and death. 

1633. Union of Protestants under Oxenstierna. 

1634. Murder of Wallenstein ; defeat of the Protestants at Nord- 

lingen. 

1635. Saxony concludes a " separate peace." 

1636. Victories of Banner. 
1637-165Y. Ferdinand III. 

1638. Duke Bernard of Weimar victorious in Alsatia. 

1639. Death of Duke Bernard. ^ 

1640. Diet at Ratisbon. 

1642. Victories of the Swedish general, Torstenson. 

1643. Torstenson's campaign in Denmark. 

1645. Torstenson's victories in Bohemia; his march to Vienna; 

the French generals, Turenne and Conde, in Germany. 
1648. Protestant victories ; Konigsmark takes Prague. 
1648. The Peace of Westphalia. 

FIFTH PERIOD. (1648-1871.) 

1640-1688. Frederick William of Brandenburg, the *' Great Elector." 

1643-1715. Louis XIV., King of France. 

1655-1660. War of Sweden and Poland. 

1656. Battle of Warsaw. 

1657-1705. Leopold L 

1660. The duchy of Prussia independent of Poland. 

1667-1668. Louis XIV.'s invasion of the Spanish Netherlands; the 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1672-1678. Louis XIV.'s war against Holland. 

1673. The " Great Elector " assists Holland. 

1675. The battle of Fehrbellin. 



604 CnRONOLOGIOAL TABLE OF GERMAN HISTOET. 

1676. The Elector conquers Pomerania. 

1678. The Peace of Nymwegen. 

1681. Strasburg taken by Louis XIY. 

1683. Siege of Vienna by the Turks ; John Sobicski. 

1687. The shambles of Eperies. 

1688-1713. Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg. 

1689-1697. Attempts of Louis XIY. to obtam the Palatinate. 

1697. Peace of Ryswick; Prince Eugene of Savoy defeats the 
Turks at Zenta; Augustus the Strong of Saxony be- 
comes King of Poland. 

1699. Peace of Carlowitz. 

1701. Prussia is made a kingdom. 

1701-1714. War of the Spanish Succession. 

1704. Battle of Blenheim. 

1705-1711. Joseph L 

1706. Victories of Marlborough at Ramillies and Prince Eugene 
at Turin. 

1706. Charles XIL of Sweden in Saxony. 

1708. Battle of Oudenarde. 

1709. Battle of Malplaquet. 
1711-1740. Karl VL 

1713-1740. Frederick •William L, King of Prussia. 

1713. The Peace of Utrecht. 

1714. The Peace of Rastatt; the Elector George of Hanover be- 

comes King George L of England. 

171 7. Taking of Belgrade by Prince Eugene. 

1718. Treaty of Passarowitz. 

1720. Treaty of Stockholm; Prussia acquires Pomerania. 
l7eS3-1735. War of the Polish Succession. 
1740. Death of Karl VL 



The Age of Frederick the Great. 

1712. Frederick bom, in Berlin. 

1730. His attempted flight ; execution of Katte. 

1740. Succeeds to the throne as Frederick XL of Prussia. 

1740-1742. First Silesian War. 

1741-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. 

1742-1745. Karl VIL (of Bavaria), Emperor. 

1742. Peace of Breslau; Prussia gains Silesia. 

1743. Battle of Dettingen. 

1744. East Friesland annexed to Prussia. 
1744-1745. Second Silesian War. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTORY. 605 

1745. Battles of Holienfriedberg, Sorr, and Kesselsdorf ; Peace of 
Dresden ; death of Karl VII. 

1'745-1'765. Francis I. of Lorraine. 

1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1750. Yoltaire comes to Berlin. 

1756-1763. The Seven Years' War. 

1756. Frederick's successes in Saxony and Bohemia. 

1757. Frederick's victory at Prague ; defeat at KoUin ; victories at 

Rossbach and Leuthen. 

1758. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French; siege of 01- 

miitz ; victory of Zorndorf; surprise of Hochkirch. 

1759. Battles of Minden and Kunnersdorf ; misfortunes of Prussia. 

1760. Battle of Liegnitz ; taking of Berlin ; victory of Torgau. 

1761. Frederick hard pressed ; losses of Prussia. 

1762. Death of Elizabeth of Russia ; alliance with Czar Peter III. ; 

Catharine II. ; Prussian successes. 

1763. The Peace of Hubertsburg. 
1765-1790. Joseph II. 

1769. Interview of Frederick the Great and Joseph II. 

1772. First partition of Poland. 

1774-1782. American War of Independence. 

1778. Troubles with the Bavarian succession. 

1780. Death of Maria Theresa. 

1786. Death of Frederick the Great. 
1786-1797. Frederick William II., King of Prussia. 

1787. Prussia interferes in Holland. 
1788-1791. Austria joins Russia against Turkey. 

1790. Death of Joseph II. 

Wars with the French Republic and Napoleon. 

1789. Beginning of the French Revolution. 

1790-1792. Leopold II. 

1792. France declares war against Austria and Prussia. 

1792. Campaign in France ; battles of Yalmy and Jemappes. 
1792-1835. Francis II. 

1793. Second partition of Poland ; the first Coalition ; successes 

of the Allies. 

1794. France victorious in Belgium ; Prussia victorious on the 

Upper Rhine. 

1795. Third and last partition of Poland ; Prussia makes peace 

with France. 

1796. Bonaparte in Italy; Jourdan defeated in Germany; Mo- 

reau's retreat. 



G06 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GERMAN HISTORY. 

179Y. Peace of Campo Forinio. 

1'79'7-1840. Frederick William III., King of Prussia. 

1798. Congress of Rastatt ; Bonaparte in Egypt. 

1799. The second Coalition; Suwarrow in Italy; Bonaparte First 

Consul. 

1800. Battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. 

1801. Peace of Luneville ; France extends to the Rhine. 

1803. Reconstruction of Germany ; French invasion of Hannover. 

1804. Duke d'Enghien shot; Napoleon, Emperor. 

1805. The third Coalition; battle of Austerlitz ; defeat of Austria 

and Russia ; Peace of Presburg. 

1806. The '* Rhine-Bund " estabhshed ; Francis II. gives up the 

imperial crown ; battle of Jena ; all Prussia in the hands 
of Napoleon. 

1807. Battles of Eylau and Friedland; Peace of Tilsit; Jerome 

Bonaparte made King of Westphalia. 

1808. Napoleon and Alexander I. in Erfurt; Joseph Bonaparte, 

King of Spain. 

1809. Austria begins war with France ; revolts of Hofer and Schill ; 

Napoleon marches to Vienna; battles of Aspem and 
Wagram ; Peace of Schonbrunn. 

1810. Marriage of Napoleon and Maria Louisa ; annexation of Hol- 

land and Northern Germany to France. 

1812. Germany compelled to unite with Napoleon against Russia ; 

battle of Borodino ; burning of Moscow ; the retreat ; 
General York's alliance with Russia. 

1813. The War of Liberation ; Frederick William III. yields to the 

pressure ; the army of volunteers ; battles of Liitzen and 
Bautzen ; armistice ; the fifth Coalition ; Austria joins the 
Allies ; victories of the Katzbach, Kulm, and Dennewitz ? 
great battle of Leipzig ; Napoleon's retreat ; battle of 
Hanau ; Germany liberated. 

1814. The campaign in France; the Allies enter Paris; Napoleon's 

abdication ; the Congress of Vienna. 

1815. Napoleon's return from Elba; the new German Confedera- 

tion ; battles of Ligny and Waterloo ; end of Napoleon's 
rule ; second Peace of Paris ; the " Holy Alliance." 

Germany in the Nineteenth Century. 

1817. The Students' Convention at the Wartburg. 

1819. The conference at Carlsbad. 

1821. Congress at Laybach. 

1822. Congress at Verona. 



CHBONOLOGIOAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTOEY. 607 

1823. A "provincial" representation in Prussia. 

1830. The July Revolution in France; outbreaks in Germany. 

1834. The Zollverein established. 

1835-1848. Ferdinand I., Emperor of Austria. 

1837. Ernest Augustus, King of Hannover. 

1840-1861. Frederick William lY., King of Prussia. 

1848. Revolution in Germany; conflicts in Austria, Prussia, and 

Baden ; war in Schleswig-Holstem ; the National Parlia- 
ment at Frankfort ; insurrection in Hungary and Italy ; 
bombardment of Vienna ; Francis Joseph, Emperor. 

1849. Frederick William lY. rejects the imperial crown ; civil war 

in Baden ; Austria calls upon Russia for help ; surrender 
of Gorgey ; subjection of Italy. 

1850. Troubles in Hesse and Holstein ; end of the National Parlia- 

ment in Germany. 

1851. Restoration of the old Diet; Louis Napoleon, Emperor. 

1852. Conference at London concerning Schleswig-Holstein. 
1853-1856. War of England and France against Russia. 

1858. William, Prince of Prussia, regent. 

1859. War of France and Sardinia against Austria ; battles of Ma- 

genta and Solferino. 

1861. William L, King of Prussia. 

1862. Bismarck, Prime-Minister; political troubles in Prussia; 

congress of princes at Frankfort. 

1863. Continued rivalry of Austria and Prussia. 

1864. War in Schleswig-Holstein : Denmark gives up the duchies ; 

the Prince of Augustenburg in Holstein. 

1865. Agreement of Gastein; Schleswig and Holstein divided be- 

tween Austria and Prussia. 

1866. Austria prepares for war ; the German Diet dissolved. 

1866. Battle of Langensalza; invasion of Saxony and Bohemia; 

battle of Koniggratz ; the war on the Main ; truce of 
Nikolsburg ; annexation of Hannover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 
sau, and Frankfort, to Prussia ; the Peace of Pra^rue. 

1867. Establishment of the North-German Union ; the que^stion of 

Luxemburg ; hostility of France. 

1868. Tariff Parliament in Berhn. 

1869. (Ecumenical Council in Rome. 

1870. France declares war against Prussia ; all the German states, 

except Austria, unite ; battles of Weissenburg and Worth ; 
the German armies move on Metz ; battles of Courcelles' 
Mars-la-Tour, and Gravelotte; the battle of Sedan, and 
surrender of Napoleon IIL ; the Rcpubhc declared in 



608 CHEONOLOGIOAL TABLE OF GEEMAN HISTOEY. 

Paris ; capitulation of Strasburg and Metz ; siege of Paris ; the 
war on the Loire and in the northern provinces. 
IS^l. Victories of Prince Frederick Karl at La Mans; Bourbaki's re- 
pulse by Werder; surrender of Paris; Bourbaki's retreat into 
Switzerland ; William I. of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of 
Germany ; the Peace of Frankfort ; foundation of the new Ger- 
man Empire. 



Applelons' Standard Scientific Text-Books, 



Y'oumans's First Book of Botany. Designed to cultivate the Observing 
Powers of Children. By Eliza A. Youmans. i2mo. 183 pages. $1.00. 

This little book has proved a wonderful success, and is emphatically a step in the 
right direction. Although it has been issued but a short time, it has been adopted for 
use in the cities of Chicago, St. Louis, New York, Columbus, Nashville, Milwaukee, 
etc., etc., and in the States of Maryland, Illinois, and Arkansas. It is to be speedily 
followed by the Second Book of Botany and six large and beautifully-colored Botanic^ 
Charts, after the plan of Henslow. 

Hon. Superintendent Bateman, of Illinois, says: **As a sample of the true method 
of teaching the elements of science in primary schools, Miss Youmans's book is deserv- 
ing of the highest praise. In this respect I have seen nothing equal to it. The same 
method, pursued in all the natural sciences, would soon give us a generation of accu- 
rate and intelligent young observers of natural objects and phenomena, and change for 
the better the whole tone and character of common-school instruction. 

"Newton Bateman, Sup' t Public Instruction .** 

LiOckyer's Astronomy, accompanied with numerous Illustrations, a Colored 
representation of the Solar, Stellar, and Nebular Spectra, and Celestial Charts of 
the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. American Edition, revised and 
specially adapted to the Schools of the United States. i2mo. 312 pages. 

Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy. Revised Edition. Embracing the 
most recent Discoveries in the various Branches of Physics, and exhibiting the 
Application of Scientific Principles in Every-day Life. Adapted to use with or 
without Apparatus, and accompanied with Practical Exercises and numerous Illus- 
trations. i2mo. 450 pages. 
Quackenbos's Philosophy has long been a favorite Text-Book. To those who have 
used it, no words of commendation are necessary ; to those who have not, we would 
earnestly suggest a careful examination of its claims. We would here merely say that 
it has recently been thoroughly revised, in view of recent discoveries in Physics, 
and the general acceptance of new theories respecting Heat, Light, and Electricity, 
the Correlation and Conservation of Forces, etc. The present Edition is in all respects 
an accurate exponent of the present state of science. 

Huxley and Youmans's Physiology. The Elements of Physiology and 
Hygiene. A Text-Book for Educational Institutions. By Thomas H. Huxley, 
F. R. S., and William Jay Youmans, M. D. i2mo. 420 pages. 

Nicholson's Text-Book of Geologry. Well condensed, accurate, and clear. 
i2mo. 266 pages. 

Nicholson's Text-Book of Zoology. A comprehensive Manual for the use 
of Academies and Colleges. By Prof. Nicholson, of Toronto. i2mo. 353 pages. 

Wragre's German Grammar: based on the Natural 'Method— Lan^-ua^e be- 
fore Grammar, Teaches German rapidly, pleasantly, and thoroughly. i2mo. 
350 pages. 

Krusi's New Series of Drawing'-Books : Teacher's Manual, and Synthetic 
Series of Inventive Drawing (4 Nos.), now ready. Something new and excellent 
— one of the most valuable and eflficient of educational agencies. 

Send, for Catalogues and further information, to 

D. APPLETON & CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



D. APPLETON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 

German-and-En£>:lisli, and Enoiish-and-Ger- 
man Pronouncing Dictionary. 

By G. J. ADLER, A. M., Professor of the German Language and 
Literature in the University of New York. One elegant large 
8vo vol., 1,400 pages. 

The aim of the distinguished author of this work has been to embody 
all the valu£^ble results of the most recent investigations in a German 
Lexicon, which might become not only a reliable guide for the practical 
acquisition of the language, but one which would not forsake the student 
in the higher walks of his pursuits, to which its treasures would invite 
him. 

In the preparation of the German and English Part, the basis adopted 
has been the work of Fliigel, compiled in reality by Heimann, Felling^ 
and Oxenford. This was the most complete and judiciously-prepared 
manual of the kind in England. 

The present work contains the accentuation of every German word, 
several hundred Sjmonymes, together with a classification and alpha- 
betical list of the irregular verbs, and a Dictionary of German abbrevia- 
tions. 

The foreign words, likewise, which have not been completely Ger- 
manized, and which often differ in pronunciation and inflection from 
such as are purely native, have been designated by particular mkrks. 

The vocabulary of foreign words, which now act so important a part, 
not only in scientific works, but in the best classics, reviews, journals, 
newspapers, and even in conversation, has been copiously supphed from 
the most complete and correct sources. It is believed that in the 
terminology of chemistry, mineralogy, the practical arts, commerce, 
navigation, rhetoric, grammar, mythology, philosophy, etc., scarcely a 
word will be found wanting. 

The Second or German-English Part of this volume has been chiefly 
reprinted from the work of Fliigel. (The attention which has been paid 
in Germany to the preparation of English dictionaries for the German 
student has been such as to render these works very complete. The 
student, therefore, will scarcely find any thing deficient in this Second 
Part.) 

An Abridgment of the Above. 12mo, 844 pages. 



B. APPLETON & CO:S PUBLIC A TIONS. 



QUACKENBOS'S ARITHMETICS. 

The Latest and Best. 

A rrlniary Arithmetic. Beautifully illustrated; carries the 
beginner through the first four Rules, and the simple Tables, combiuino- mental 
exercises with examples for the slate. 16mo. 108 pages. 30 cents. 

An Elementary Arithmetic. Reviews the subjects of the 

Primary in a style adapted to somewhat maturer minds. Also embraces Fractions, 
Federal Money, Reduction, and the Compound Rules. 12mo. 144 pages. 50 cents. 

A Practical Arithtnetlc. Prepared expressly for Common 
Schools, gi\ing special prominence to the branches of Mercantile Ai-ithmetic. 12mo. 
33G pages. $1.00. 

A Mental Arith^netic, Designed to impart readiness in mental 
calculations, and extends them to all the branches of practical business. Intro- 
duces new and beautiful processes, and is invaluable for teaching quickness of 
thought. 16mo. 163 pages. 45 cents. 

A Higher Arithmetic, 

This Series is meeting with a most gratifying reception from teachers everywhere, 
and is exactly what is needed for mental discipline, as well as for a practical preparation 
for the business of life. It is clear, thorough, comprehensive, logically arranged, well 
graded, is supplied with a great variety of examples, and teaches the methods actually 
used by business men. 

Special attention is asked to the Peactical. Its rules and analyses are free from 
unnecessary words ; its methods are the shortest possible. Above all, it is adapted to 
the present state of things. During the last ten years, specie payments have been sus- 
pended, prices have increased, the tariff has been altered, a national tax levied, &c. Our 
books recognizes all these changes, and it is the only one that does. The prices 
given in the examples are those of the present day ; the difference between gold and 
currency is taught; the rate of duties agrees with the present tariff; the mode of com- 
puting the national income tax is explained ; the different classes of U. S. securities are 
described, and examples given to show the comparative results of investments in them. 
No Arithmetic tJuit ignores these matters should he placed in the hands of youth. 

Quackenbos's Arithmetics are used in the Public Schools of New York, Brooklyn, 
Albany, Syrsuiuse, Jersey City, Toledo, Elmira, Oswego, Richmond, Petersburg, Norfolk, 
and many other places. They are rapidly superseding the old text-books in the best 
institutions, both public and private. Wherever they are in use, they are winning 
golden opinions, by their practical character and remarkable adaptation to the school' 
room. 

^^" Specimen copies mailed., post-paid, to Teachers and School Officers, on re- 
(Mipt of one-half the retail price, Tlce most favorable terms made for introduciion. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

^49 & 551 JBroadway, New York' 



D, APPLET ON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 

Quackenbos's Standard Text-Books : 

A^NT EXCtLISH GRAMMAR: 12mo, 288 pages. 

FIRST BOOK IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 16mo, 120 pages. 

ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC: 
12mo, 450 pages. 

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION: 12mo, 182 pages. 

ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: 
12mo, 538 pages. 

ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: Beauti- 
fully illustratad with Engravings and Maps. 12mo, 230 pages. 

A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY : Just Revised. 12mo, 450 pages. 

APPLETONS' ARITHMETICAL SERIES: Consisting of a Primary, 
Elementary, Practical, Higher, and Mental Arithmetic. 



Benj. Wilcox, A. M., Princ. Elver Falls Acad., "Wis.: "I have taught in semi, 
naries in this State and in New York for more than twenty years, and am familiar with 
most of the works that have been issued by different authors within that period ; and I 
consider Quackenbos's Text-Books the most unexcejptional in then- respective depart- 
ments.""— C B. Tillinjg'hast, Princ. of Academy, Moosop, Conn.: "I think Quack- 
enbos's books the nearest perfection of any I have examined on the various subjects 
of which they treat." 

Pres. Savagre, Female Colleg-e, Millersburg, Ky. : " Mr. Q. certainly possesses rare 
qualifications as an author of school-books. His United States History has no equals 
and his Ehetoric is really indispensahW — David Y. Shaub, Pres. Teachers' Inst, 
Fog-elsville, Pa. : " I approve of all the Text-Books written by Mr. Quackenbos."" — Eev. 
Dr. Winslow, N. Y., Author of "Intellectual Pkilosophy:" "All the works of this 
excellent author are characterized by clearness, accuracy, thoroughness, and complete- 
ness ; also by a gi-adual and continuous development of ulterior results from then- pre- 
viously taught elements." 

Eev. Dr. Rivers, Pres. "Wesleyan University : " I cordially approve of all the Text- 
Books edited by G. P. Quackenbos."— W. B. McCrate, Princ. Acad., E. Sullivan, 
Me. : " Quackenbos's books need only to be known to be used in all the schools in the 
State. Wherever they are introduced, they are v/nixersally liked!''' — Jas. B. iRue, 
County Supt. of Schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa: "Any thing that has Quackenbos's 
name is sufficient guarantee with me." — Methodist Q,uarterly Review, Jan. 
18G0: "Every thing we have noticed from Mr. Quackenbos shows that the making of 
bookb of this class is his proper vocation." 



Single copies of the above Standard works will he mailed^ post-paid^ for 
examincUionj on receipt of one-half the retail prices. Liberal terms made 
for introduction. Address 

D. APPLBTOJ^ & CO., PubUshers, 

549 t& 551 Broadioay, Kew York. 



D. APPLETON iSo CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 

Quackenbos^s Text-Books on the English 
Language. 



"The singular excellence of all Quackenbos's school-books is well known to the edn- 
eational community. They are generally admitted to be the best manuals on the sub- 
jects of which they respectively treat*"'— J. W. BULKLEY, City Supt. of Schools, 
Brooklyru, N. Y. 

PIRST BOOK IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR : 16mo, 120 pages. 

AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR : 12mo, 2SS pages. 

EIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION: 12mo, 182 pages. 

ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC : 

12mo, 450 pages. 

Covering the whole field, these books afford an insight into the structure 
of the English language that can be obtamed from no other source. The 
Grammars, by an original system peculiarly clear and simple, teach the 
Analysis of our tongue both verbal and logical. The works on Composi- 
tion are equally thorough guides to its Synthesis, embodying in a con- 
densed form the substance of Blair, Kames, Alison, Burke, Campbell, and 
other standards, the whole illustrated with practical exercises in great 
variety. 

The pupil thoroughly instructed in these books cannot fail to learn 
how to express himself with propriety and elegance. They work Hke a 
charm in the school-room ; where one is introduced, the others soon follow. 



C. J. Buckingrham, Pres. Board of 
Education, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., says: 
" I am very much pleased ^vith the gen- 
eral plan as well as with the particular 
arrangement of the Grammar, It is very 
concise, and yet very comprehensive; 
omitting nothing that is essential, nor 
containing any thing superfluous. The 
definitions are very exact and easily 
understood. Parsing is rendered an 
easy and pleasant task, if task it can be 
longer called. Punctuation is made very 
plain and intelligible. I think this trea- 
tise is destined to become a great favor- 
ite in our public schools, used either in 
connection with Quackenbos's Lessons 
in Composition or without them. The 
Series appears to cover the entire 



B. F. Morrison, Princ. High School, 
"Weston, Mass., writes : " Having for sev- 
eral years past used the author's Rhetoric, 
I was prepared to find a good Grammar. 
The examination did not disappoint me. 
It is characterized, like the former work, 
by admirable method and great clear- 
ness and precision of statement." 

Rev. li. "W. Hart, Eector of College 
Grammar School, BrookljTi : "Your 
new Grammar has been very closely 
examined in regard to the plan and 
general execution of the work, and is 
perfectly marked by the same excel- 
lences which have made your 'First 
Lessons ' and your ' Advanced Course ' 
my favorite text-books for some years. 
It will go into use, like them, as my 
text-book in EngUsh Grammar.'" 



D, APPLETON iSc CO:S PUBLICATIONS, 

Corneirs First Steps in Geograpliy. 

ChilcTs Quarto, with numerous Maps and Illustrations. Intended to 
precede 



CORNELL^S COMPLETE AND SYSTEMATIC SERIES OP 
SCHOOL GEOGKAPHIES, 

CONSISTING OF 

Primary Geography. Small quarto, 100 pages. This work contains 
only those branches of the subject that admit of being brought within the compre- 
hension of the youthful beginner. It is illustrated with upward of seventy sugges- 
tive designs, and twenty beautiful Maps, newly engraved in the best style, and 
pronounced " gems of art." The sale of this fiivorite work has ah-eady exceeded 
1,000,000 copies. 

Intermediate Geography. Large quarto, 100 pages. Revised edition, 
with new and additional Maps and numerous Illustrations. Designed for pupils 
who have completed a Primary Course. It, as well as the Primary, contains many 
peculiar and invaluable advantages of arrangement and system, n summary- of Phys- 
ical Geography, and easy Lessons on Map-drawing. 

Grammar-School Geography. Large quarto, 122 pages; with nu- 
merous Maps and Illustrations. It is very full on Physical Geography, particularly 
that of the United States. This work is intended to follow the Intermediate, or be 
used instead of it. Both are alike philosophical in theu- arrangements, accurate in 
theu- statements, judiciously adapted to the school-room, chastely and lavishly illus- 
trated, attractive in then- external appearance, and generally just what the intelligenl 
teacher desires. 

High-School Geography and Atlas. Geography, large 12mo, 405 
pages. Richly illustrated. Atlas, very large quarto. Containing a complete set of 
Maps for study ; also, a set of Reference Maps for family use. These volumes are 
intended for High-Schools and Academies; they cover the whole ground. The 
Atlas will be found fuller and more reliable than former atlases, and vrill answer 
every practical purpose of reference for schools and families. 

Physical Geography. Large quarto, 104 pages. The most interest- 
ing and instructive work on this subject ever presented, Lavishly illustrated, and cm* 
bracing all late discoveries and the most recent views of scientific ^v^iters. Contain* 
ing 19 pages of Maps and copious Map-Questions. 



In the present editions of those works, the text of each has undergone a rigid revision, 
and the manv geographical chansres in both worlds have boon onrofully embodiofl. Thfl 
importance of PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY and MAP-DRAWING has boon fiUly roo- 
ognizod, the Physical Geography of the United States receiving sj^eoial attentiol|. To 
the Maps the Publishers point \\ith pride, as the inotst biMuti/iU apecimena in t^i/i^jw- 
of a 7^ ecer qjj^ered to the American public ■ \ 



n 



^ 



